12 件改變藝術的發明 by Prism Creation Ltd

Inventions發明

件改變藝術的 that Changed the

World

策劃 Project Planner 林達生 George Lam 編輯 Editor 梁安琦 Angel Leung 02

設計及插畫 Designer & Illustrator 鍾凱飛 Chung Hoi Fei

資料搜集及撰文 Researchers & Writers 查映嵐 Evelyn Char 張文禮 German Cheung 胡銘堯 Dennis Wu 出版及發行 Published & Distributed by 稜創意有限公司 Prism Creation Ltd 香港灣仔港灣道 2 號香港藝術中心 7 樓 704 室 Rm 704, 7/F, Hong Kong Arts Centre, 2 Harbour Rd, Wanchai, Hong Kong 電話：(852) 2111 1192 傳真：(852) 2975 3146 電郵：prism@arts-news.net 承印 Printed by 基亞印刷有限公司 Gear Printing Ltd 版次 Printing History 2014 年 9 月第一次印刷 First published, September 2014

Inventions 發明

件改變藝術的 that Changed the

rt World

目錄 Contents P.8

序 Preface

P.12

菲林 Film

(1825)

P.20

機械 Machinery

(1860-1880)

P.28

音響 Audio Electronics

(1874-1877)

P.34

留聲機 Phonograph

(1877)

P.42

電燈 Light Bulb (1878-1879)

P.50

活動電影機 Cinematograph (1895)

目錄 Contents

P.58

投影機 Projector (1900)

P.66

電視機 Television

(1923-1927)

P.72

電腦 Computer

P.80

電子合成器 Synthesiser

(1967)

(1832-1941)

P.86

Walkman

(1979)

P.94

互聯網 Internet (1969-1983)

P.104 P.110

附錄 Excursus

圖片鳴謝 Photo credit

序

發明與藝術小機械人與它的 12 位朋友，將會在《12 件改變藝術的發明》中帶你走一趟時間之旅。看看藝術如何在發明的洪流中，演化成今天的模樣。當初《△志》製作這本小書，一方面是配合康樂及文化事務署藝術節辦事處的「新視野藝術節 2014」，另一方面我們也希望把一個個有關藝術發展的小故事，以有趣的方式介紹給讀者。一開始構思的時候，即時冒起一個問題：一直推著藝術向前走的動力是甚麼？除了人們的想法隨時代轉變，藝術也因科技進步得到更多的可能性。二百年前人們的繪畫、音樂、劇場，可能與今天完全不同。所以我們決定由顛覆西方繪畫藝術的菲林開始，談到現在徹底進駐我們生活的互聯網，細數 12 件改變藝術的發明。在搜集資料、與寫作團隊討論的過程中發現，原來一些我們今天以為理所當然的東西，曾幾何時是件驚天動地的大事。

凝住時間的菲林、照亮劇場的燈泡、隨身隨聽的 Walkman、拉近地域的互聯網……也許它們最初只是一些天馬行空的想像，因著科學家與發明家不懈的努力而實現。於是，一件又一件令人驚嘆的發明面世，塑造了我們今天的生活、文化與藝術。最後，這本書得以面世，要感謝很多人不辭勞苦的努力，包括策劃的 George，負責資料搜集及內文的 Dennis、Evelyn 與 German，以及不眠不休、絞盡腦汁為此書構思了 12 個可愛角色，畫上多幅美麗又有趣插畫兼排版的 Fei。至於未來藝術又會變成甚麼樣子？不妨跟我們一同想像。梁安琦

Preface

Invention and Art 10

The small robot and its 12 friends will take you through time, travelling back and forth to visit 12 Inventions that Changed the Art World. We will see how art evolved alongside the groundswell of inventions to what it has become today. DeltaZhi magazine initiated this publication as a response to the Leisure and Cultural Services Department, Festivals Office’s “New Vision Arts Festival 2014”. The team at DeltaZhi wanted to tell the inside stories about the development of art in a fun and informative way. At the book’s outset, a question immediately presented itself: What had been the momentum driving art’s development? Apart from artists’ creative inspiration and the public’s habits and tastes, which changed through time, the advancement of science and technology gave visual and performing arts more possibilities. Two centuries ago, visual arts, music, theatre and dance were quite different from what we enjoy today. That led to the decision to tell the stories behind the 12 most important inventions that we felt revolutionised the art, starting with film’s subversion of Western paintings to the Internet that dominates our daily lives. As the writers gathered the information, we discovered that some of the things we take for granted were once earth-shattering events.

From light bulb that gave life to theatres to Walkman that liberated music from home or concert hall, these inventions were originally just a thought in someoneâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s fanciful imagination. Through the hard work and tireless efforts of scientists and inventors, fancies were transformed into reality. One after another amazing invention was launched, shaping our lives today while influencing culture and art. Finally, special thanks to the key people who help with this publication: George, the project planner; Dennis, Evelyn and German, who were responsible for the textâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s research and development; as well as Fei, who racked his brains around the clock to create 12 cute personalities along with beautiful, interesting illustrations and designs. What will become of art in the future? You may wish to imagine alongside with us.

Angel Leung

Film

★ 世上首張菲林 ★ 被相機搶去

，是塊塗了

飯碗，畫家

★ 攝影也是藝術

啊！

藥水的銅片

們不得不想

！

想辦法。

★ The worl d's fi plate coated rst film was a copper with chemic als! ★ The camer a took over ar tists' roles, forcing artist making art. s to find new ways of ★ Photogra phy can also be art. 年份 Yea r： 182 5 年

發明者 Inve nted by：約瑟夫・涅普斯（ Jos eph N. Niép ce， 176 5-18 33） 13

1 涅普斯拍攝《窗外風景》時，足足照了八個小時才得到這片影像。今天我們看它覺得鬆郁矇，但這幅菲林照片卻改變了世界。

Niépce took eight hours to obtain this image, View from the Window . This image appears blurry and unclear to today’s audiences. At the time, though, a photograph made from film changed the world.

攝影的誕生 1825 年，法國科學家約瑟夫・涅普斯把塗上感光藥水的銅片放在以針孔相機原理製成的暗箱內，經過長時間陽光照射，塗上藥水的銅片便把暗箱外一個男孩牽馬的影像複製下來——這便是最早的攝影技術 14

「日光蝕刻法」。他在 1826 年或 1827 年期間，把家外的景物拍攝下來，成為流傳後世的首張照片《窗外風景》。但此時拍出來的影像還是模糊一片，難以流行起來。至於攝影技術真正風行，則是始於法國攝影師路易・達蓋爾於 1839 年發明了達蓋爾銀版攝影法及首台實用銀版照相機。這種攝影方式拍出的影像清晰得多，同年由法國科學與藝術學院買下專利並公佈於世，正式宣佈攝影的誕生。

2 達蓋爾在 1839 年間，用銀版攝影法拍攝了《坦普爾大街街景》，曝光時間大幅減少至十分鐘。這是世上第一幅拍到人的照片！

Daguerre produced the image Boulevard du Temple circa 1839 using silver-coated plates, and its exposure time was shortened to 10 minutes. It was the world’s first photograph to capture people in a still image.

ake

The birth of photography In 1825, a French scientist, Joseph N. Niépce took a copper plate coated with photosensitive chemicals and placed it inside a pinhole camera – now known as a camera obscura. After eight hours of direct sunlight upon it, the coated copper strip copied the image depicted outside the camera box of a boy leading a horse. This event resulted in the first successful photograph employing a pioneering technique called “sunlight engraving” or heliogravure. Circa 1826 or 1827, Niépce recorded a scene outside his home, and the work became the first circulated photograph. It was titled View from the Window . However, images at the time were vague and blurry, and the public took little notice of the groundbreaking invention. That changed in 1839, when French photographer Louis J.M. Daguerre invented daguerreotype and introduced the first practical camera using silver nitrate coated copper plates. Clear and sharp representations of real life were finally possible and photography became immensely popular virtually overnight. The same year, Daguerre’s patent was bought by the French Academy of Science and Arts, and photography quickly gained an international following.

還在畫畫？照片比繪畫更寫實！攝影面世後，竟給畫家們帶來前所未有的威脅。正如法國畫家德拉羅什所說：「自今日起，繪畫已死。」在當時西方社會，繪畫的目的是把真實情況紀錄下來，如繪畫肖像畫、宗教畫及歷史畫等等，而這項任務卻被攝影輕易取替了，畫家們頓失生計。可幸的是，繪畫藝術並沒有被時代淘汰，相反更打開一個新面貌。追求寫實再無意義，繪畫踏上尋求突破之旅。十九世紀中，一批包括莫奈、雷諾瓦、德加及馬奈等年輕畫家開始摒棄寫實，追求生活化的題材和描繪光線與色彩的變化，組成一個在學院正統以外的獨立藝術群體——他們就是後來為人所知的印象派。事實上印象派畫家也受到攝影技術影響，他們的作品就像相機般捕捉一刻畫面，雷諾瓦著名的《船上的午宴》便是一個例子。攝影在後來許多藝術風潮也發揮影響力。除了二十世紀初主張呈現事物不同面貌的立體主義受到攝影影響，六、七十年代短暫崛起的照相寫實主義——一種極端地模仿攝影的繪畫運動——亦明顯有其影子。

Still painting?

By their very definition, photographs are more realistic than paintings. After photography was invented, painters who earned their livelihood with the brush faced an unprecedented threat. French artist Paul Delaroche even declared: “From today, painting is dead.” Up until that time in Western society, paintings were mostly used to record realistic situations. Portraits of the upper classes, religious milestones or historical battles were all bread and butter to artists until the popularisation of the camera. Photography quickly became the preferred method of record keeping, and painters suddenly lost their primary source of income. Fortunately, the art of painting was not eliminated as predicted by Delaroche. Instead, it took on a different cultural role. Paintings that imitated realistic images became meaningless, forcing intrepid artists to achieve breakthroughs in both technique and intended usage. By the mid-19th century, many young artists such as Claude Monet, Pierre-Auguste Renoir, Edgar Degas and Édouard Manet abandoned realism in their works. They pursued everyday subject matters and depicted them under changing light conditions using different colours and experimental brush work. They later formed an independent style outside the orthodox schools of painting and became famous as Impressionists. In fact, these Impressionists were influenced by photographic techniques: their works captured the moment, as if snapped by a camera. Renoir’s Luncheon of the Boating Party is one such example. Over time, photography began to exert increasing influence over various art movements. In the early 20th century, art advocating cubism directly evolved through how the camera worked. Cubism revealed subjects from different vantage points all in one frame, just like a composite of various photos shooting the same subject. Cubism was followed by the brief rise of the photorealism movement during the 1960s and 1970s.

3 雷諾瓦《船上的午宴》，以畫筆代替相機，描繪了人們在宴會中生動的動作表情。

Renoir’s Luncheon of the Boating Party used a painter’s brush instead of camera, and captured the vivid expressions of people at a banquet.

拿起相機就能創作攝影本身直接、表面地複製現實的特質，讓它在十九世紀中迅速登上藝術的殿堂。透過攝影師的眼睛，人們看見本來沒可能接觸的世界，發現事物最真實的美態。隨著攝影開始被視作藝術，攝影師們也開始透過相機尋找獨特的角度，例如史川德在 1915 年拍攝的《碗製造的抽象圖案》便引起二十代至三十年代的特寫浪潮。自此，攝影師孜孜不倦地尋找更美、更獨特的方式來觀察世界，並與時裝、設計、電影等領域互相影響。在攝影藝術站穩陣腳之時，菲林卻逐漸煙沒在歷史洪流中。1975 年，柯達公司發明數碼相機，並在九十年代起大行其道，逐漸取代成本高昂的菲林，多間生產商如寶麗萊、富士等陸續停產。諷刺地，本是菲林界龍頭的柯達也在 2012 年申請破產，正式宣告菲林完成 18

其歷史任務。

4 史川德以相機拍下四隻碗的特寫《碗製造的抽象圖案》，看起來不明所以，卻從鏡頭發掘了隱藏在現實中的美麗畫面。

Strand’s close-up photography, Abstract Patterns Made by Bowls, illustrated seemingly unfamiliar objects, revealing their inner beauty through reality as captured by the camera’s viewfinder.

ul Strand 史川德 Pa

Just pick up a camera and create art As photography could directly replicate realistic surface qualities, it quickly rose to become an art form by the mid-19th century. Photography became respectable, and photographers were highly regarded creators. Through the photographerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s eyes, people could see what they could not possibly reach, and discover true beauty in subjects they may never have noticed before. When photography gained acceptance as an independent art form, photographers began to explore unique perspectives through the camera lens. For example, Paul Strand shot Abstract Patterns Made by Bowls in 1915, which caused a flourish of subjects shot with powerful zoom lenses in the 1920s and 1930s. Since then, photographers have worked tirelessly to capture ever more spectacular and unique angles to showcase the world they experienced. Photography has influenced many other disciplines beyond the sphere of fine art. Fashion, design and motion pictures are just a few, leading to interdisciplinary collaborations. While photographic art is now a highly respected art form, the use of film has gradually declined and eventually disappeared in recent years. In 1975, Kodak invented digital cameras. These became ubiquitous worldwide by the 1990s and eventually replaced cameras that used costly film. Many traditional manufacturers, including Polaroid and Fuji, discontinued making film. Ironically, the industryâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s former manufacturing leader, Kodak, filed for bankruptcy in 2012. It was the final nail in the coffin that sealed the death of film.

Machi nery

方式！平又快的現代生產 ★ 在流水線上，又仍是藝術嗎？ ★ 工廠生產的藝術 d out of ction evolve u d ro p t s fa nd ★ Cheap a d assembly lines! automate nsidered tory still co c fa a in d e duc ★ Is art pro art? f o rm a fo

年份 Ye ar： 18 60 -1 88 0 年

發明者 In ve nt ed by：集體發明 (Vari ous Individuals)

滿足大眾需求的生產方式在 1851 年倫敦萬國工業博覽會的展品目錄中，記有以下一段文字，「美國沒有龐大的財富積累支撐奢侈品的需求，這是她與其他國家的區別，她的工業生產必須面向大眾的需求。」美國於 1776 年才立國，於十九世紀初還是一個新國家，除了原住民和黑奴，當地的人民多是來自英國與歐洲大陸的新移民，相對歐洲諸國，人民的地位較平等，財富分配 22

也較平均，因此「工業生產必須面向大眾的需求」，也就是說，當時的美國已存在對大量生產貨品的需求。話雖如此，技術上的突破卻來自英國。1860 年代，英國的貝西默爵士發明了首個能廉價且大規模以生鐵煉鋼的方法，揭開第二波工業革命的序幕；1880 年代，英國開始實現電力化，對日常生活與工業生產影響甚鉅；鐵路、電報、電話、無線電也是十九世紀末的產物。人們不僅突然面對轟隆作響的大型機器，同時亦隨著現代化的交通與通訊的發展急步而行，衝擊之大令人難以想像。除了電力，製作金屬零件的機械也出現於十九世紀，是大量生產的先決條件。在手工業經濟中，工匠必須獨自完成組裝一個產品的所有工序，也得花時間自行搜購零件，相比之下大量生產的一大特色是流水型生產線，輸送帶上的貨品經過每一位在生產線上的工人由他們順序加工，他們各自只須熟習一至數項工序，所需的零件也備妥在崗位，大大提升效率與生產力。技術革新的同時，新時代的管理人員如泰勒亦引進了科學化管理模式，利用按件計酬等方法刺激生產力。

Production methods that address market demands In the official catalogue for The Great Exhibition of the Works of Industry of All Nations held in London in 1851, it was noted that “The absence in the United States of those vast accumulations of wealth which favour the expenditures of large sums on articles of mere luxury… impact the productions of American industry a character distinct from that of other countries' industries. [Production is geared toward] articles suited to the wants of the whole people.” The United States was founded in 1776, and was still a new country in the early 19th century. Apart from indigenous natives and black slaves, the local people were mostly new immigrants from Britain and continental Europe. Compared to many other European countries, American people had relatively equal social status, and the distribution of wealth was also more even. Therefore, the comment that “[Production is geared toward] articles suited to the wants of the whole people” meant that America already had demand for mass-produced goods as early as the mid-19th century. Notwithstanding these comments about America, technological breakthroughs mostly happened in Great Britain. In the 1860s, Sir Henry Bessemer invented the first low-cost and large-scale approach to steel making from pig iron in Britain, which was a prelude to the Industrial Revolution’s second wave. In the 1880s, the British began to make use of electric power, which had a great influence upon daily life and industrial production. Railroads, telegraphs, telephones, and radios were all products of the late 19th century. People not only had huge and noisy machines; they also experienced them concurrently when modern transportation and communication made great leaps forward. The impact turned everyone’s lives upside down to an extent that is difficult to fathom today. Along with electrical progress, metallic tool making machines began appearing in the 19th century, paving the way for mass production. Before machines took over, artisans and craftsmen produced products by hand, personally sourcing pieces and then hand assembled. By comparison, mass production features an “assembly line” for manufacturing – goods on the conveyor belt passed every worker, but each worker spent only a small amount of time on each component of the eventual product. Workers only needed to familiarise themselves with a very limited number of skills. In addition, the necessary parts were readily available at each worker’s post to enhance efficiency and productivity. Along with technological innovation, the assembly line yielded a new era of management. For example, Frederick W. Taylor introduced a scientific management method using “piece rate” and other methods to stimulate productivity.

藝術變得更普及平凡這種劃時代的生產模式由美國的福特汽車推向高潮，福特出品的 T 型汽車，標誌著標準化、大眾化產品時代的來臨。生產成本大幅下降，商品產量上升，意味着消費不再由貴族階級主導，新興的中產階級一躍而成消費王國的主角，法國小說家左拉的《婦女樂園》，故事圍繞百貨公司發生，正正深入描寫這種新興的消費文化。生產與消費模式轉變的同時，藝術品贊助人也擴闊至中產階層：畢沙羅、德加、莫奈等重要藝術家的藏家之中就有漂白粉商人、貿易行老闆、步槍隊隊長、甚至歌劇演員，雖說新興贊助群體的品味或多或少會影響藝術創作，但王公貴胄與教會不再是贊助的單一來源，確實讓藝術擁有更大的實驗空間，可以嘗試更多的題材與風格。 24

1917 年，杜象發表名作《噴泉》，在現成的便斗上簽上名字，並當作品提交至藝術展。他是最早將大量生產成品作為藝術品的藝術家。《噴泉》的原作早已佚失，如今在各藝術館展出的是杜象授權的複製品，對一般人來說，複製品和原作根本毫無區別，正好突顯了「機械複製時代」藝術品的特質：靈光消退，原創性變得不再重要。

1 杜象在一個便斗上簽上一個卡通人物的名字，並命名為《噴泉》送往參展。他把大量生產的成品當成藝術，在藝術界掀起千重浪。

Duchamp signed the name of a cartoon character (R. Mutt) on a urinal; then named his work Fountain and sent it to an art exhibition. He treated mass-produced objects as works of art, which set off an uproar in the art world.

Art becomes more universal and more common Manufacturing reached its epoch-making pinnacle with America’s Ford Motor Company. Henry Ford produced the Model T automobile, which ushered in the era for standardised products and popular goods. Production costs dropped significantly while commodity quantities escalated. Suddenly, the aristocracy no longer dominated the consumer class, or people who could afford goods. Middle class folks scrambled to emerge as protagonists in the empire of consumption. French novelist Émile Zola wrote The Ladies’ Paradise (Au Bonheur des Dames) with a plot that revolved around department stores giving an in-depth description of an emerging consumer culture. Changes in production and consumption patterns also widened art patrons to include the middle class. For example, Camille Pissarro, Edgar Degas, Claude Monet and other important artists had their works collected by bleach businessmen, trading company heads, rifle corps captains and opera singers. Therefore the preferences of these new patrons influenced the type of art created, kings, nobles and the church were no longer the only sources of monetary support and a wider audience allowed artists greater freedom to experiment, break with traditions and test new themes and stylistic ideas. In 1917, Marcel Duchamp produced his masterpiece Fountain , where he took a ready-made urinal, added his signature, and submitted it as his creation to an art exhibition. Duchamp was the first artist to label a mass-produced, ready-made object a works of art. The original Fountain urinal was lost long ago; the ones currently on display in various international museums are replicas authorised by Duchamp. For most people, there is no fundamental difference between replica and original, highlighting that in the “age of mechanical reproduction”, art has special qualities: after the inspirational aura subsides, authenticity is no longer important.

安迪華荷的《金寶湯罐頭》和《布瑞諾盒》，均是複製一些大量生產貨品的外觀。

Andy Warhol’s masterpieces Campbell's Soup Cans and Brillo Boxes both reproduced the appearances of mass-produced goods.

說到正面指涉大量生產的藝術家，當然以安迪華荷為表表者。1962 年，華荷的《金寶湯罐頭》絲網印畫可謂一石激起千重浪，作品看似只是複製大量生產的罐頭食品的外觀，在紐約藝壇引來一片爭議 26

聲。華荷那大名鼎鼎、位於紐約的工作室名叫「工廠」，他聘用交際花、癮君子、變裝女皇、變性人、音樂人、成人電影演員為助手，在他的監督下製作藝術品，這些人就是「華荷超級巨星」。據曾到訪的人說，工廠真的名不虛傳，裡面確實有生產絲網作品的流水線，眾人各安其位，有效率地生產貼上華荷標籤的作品。華荷另一件指涉大量生產商品的作品《布瑞洛盒》，引發哲學家丹托思索為何華荷的布瑞洛盒與哈維（布瑞洛盒的設計者）的布瑞洛盒，外觀幾乎一模一樣，卻只有前者被認為是藝術品。丹托的結論是世上既出現了跟日常事物沒有分別的藝術作品，「藝術」便宣告終結，這理論對二十世紀後半葉開始的藝術研究者影響深遠。

When it comes to artists who blatantly mass-produced art, Andy Warhol was exemplary. In 1962, Warhol's Campbell's Soup Cans silkscreen paintings could be described as “the pebble that created thousands of ripples”. His work seemingly just copied the appearance of mass-produced canned food, and it initiated a controversial uproar in Manhattan art circles. Warhol worked in a legendary art studio in New York City called The Factory , where he hired a ménage of socialites, drug addicts, drag queens, transgender people, musicians, and adult film performers as assistants, producing art under his supervision. The assistants became “Warhol Superstars”. According to people who visited the studio, The Factory really deserved its reputation: it had a production line for screen paintings; each person had a specific position with specific skills, efficiently producing art that were eventually labelled with Warhol's signature. His Brillo Boxes , another mass-produced art piece, triggered philosopher Arthur Danto to ponder why Warhol's Brillo Boxes and James Harvey's brillo boxes were different, as Harvey was the designer for the original boxes. The boxes looked almost exactly the same, but only Warhol's boxes were considered to be art. Danto's conclusion was that, since the world has produced art indistinguishable from everyday things, “art history is over” and it is “the end of art”. The concept had a far-reaching impact upon art researchers during the second half of the 20th century.

★ 由擴音

器到聲

★ 聲效不用

音設計

再靠即

。

場製造

，更可

任意調

整！

Audio E lectron ics

sound design. ★ From loudspeakers to e to rely ★ Sound effects do not hav can be y the on live acoustics – to recreate simulated and manipulated virtually anything audible! 年份 Ye ar ： 18 74 -1 87 7 年

發明者 In ve nt ed by ：恩斯特・西門子（ Er ns t W . Si em en s， 18

16 -1 89 2）

一切從擴音器開始在十九世紀末，德國發明家西門子已提出了擴音器的雛形——一個配以牽牛花狀喇叭、以電能製造聲音的裝置。不過首個劇場使用的音響系統，則要等到幾十年後才出現。紐約百老匯的卡比杜戲院於 1935 年安裝了首個標準劇場音響系統。這個系統可以播放載有預錄聲效的黑膠碟，如狗吠聲、蒸氣火車聲以及間場音樂等等。德國戲劇家布萊希特便是首批開始使用預錄聲效的導演之一。五十年代，用來播放劇場聲效及音樂的黑膠碟被錄音帶取代。雖然當時很多曾在荷里活工作的導演想在劇場做到類似電影的聲效，但因錄音帶質素實在太差而不成功。同時，當時由於劇場音響技術複雜又不可靠，以致聲音設計經常被人忽略。當時一齣戲劇的聲音通常都是由舞台監督安排，演出時則由舞台技術員執行。直到六十年代至七十年 30

代期間，才陸續出現專門負責設計音樂及聲效的職位——「聲音設計師」。

擴音器的雛形。

Prototypes for loudspeakers.

2 盤式錄音帶播放器。錄音帶技術在 50 年代漸見成熟，令劇場聲音設計有更多可能性。

Open reel tape player – tape recording technology began to mature in the 1950s, allowing more opportunities for sound design in theatres.

It started with loudspeakers In the 19th century, German inventor Ernst W. Siemens proposed a loudspeaker prototype: it was an electrically powered device with a bell-shaped horn that produced sounds. However, it took several decades before sound systems became popular in theatres. In 1935, the Capitol Theatre in New York’s famous Broadway district was the first to install a proper sound system. The equipment could play pre-recorded sounds from vinyl discs, including dogs barking, steam trains whistling, interlude music, and much more. The German playwright and director Bertolt Brecht was one of the first to use pre-recorded sound effects in his productions. In the 1950s, vinyl discs were replaced by recorded tapes for theatrical sound effects or music. Many stage directors who worked in Hollywood wanted theatrical sounds to achieve the same high level as sound in motion pictures, but they were unsuccessful due to the inferior quality of taped recordings. Due to the technical complexity and variable nature of theatrical sounds, sound design’s relevance to the overall production was often overlooked. At that time, a play’s audible components were typically arranged by the stage manager. During a performance, stage electricians would play the pre-arranged audio track. It was not until the 1960s and 1970s when a profession emerged that combined the design of music and audio effects: the sound designer was born.

任人搓圓按扁的聲音在音響系統出現之前，劇場都要靠樂手現場演奏音樂，在後台即場製造各種聲效：雷聲是搖晃鐵片的聲音、雨聲是小圓珠在盤內碰撞的聲音、風聲則是畫布與木片滾筒摩擦的聲音……不過，自從音響系 32

統進駐劇院，劇場製作便能夠使用預先錄製的聲音，甚至加強某些音效或音樂，而非必須靠即場演奏音樂及聲效。要播放預錄的聲音，抑或找樂隊來現場演繹，任由導演自由選擇。另外，通過音響系統，人們能夠在聲音傳到觀眾耳中之前，先處理並調節聲音的質素。以演唱會為例，從咪高峰到擴音器之間，聲音會先經過即時處理和作平衡調整步驟，故此我們聽到的聲音就更佳了。到了九十年代，隨著 CD、MD、數碼錄音帶等數碼錄播設備出現並愈來愈完善，聲音設計師的工作就變得更加靈活，能夠控制的東西也更多。透過聲音設計，聲音對作品的影響也愈來愈大。透過現代聲音處理及聲效剪接的技術，他們能夠創造一些本來不存在的超現實聲效及音樂，為觀眾建構起前所未有的感覺與想像，藉此營造演出的氛圍與空間。

Sounds which could be manipulated as you wish Before sound systems appeared, theatres relied on musicians to play live music. At backstage, they produced a variety of sounds – thunder was the result of shaking iron plates, rain was simulated by small beads colliding upon a tray, and wind emanated from the friction caused by canvas with wooden slats mounted upon a revolving cylinder. When audio systems became routinely installed in theatres, theatrical productions could make use of recordings and highlighted certain parts in the show through music or unique sound effects and no longer had to rely on an orchestra or musicians to produce live music. Whether to use pre-recorded tracks or to commission performing musicians became a choice left to the director. In addition, a sound system allows music and other effects to be processed and fine tuned before they reached the ears of the audience. In concerts, for example, sounds entering the microphones and coming out from loudspeakers could be instantly processed and balanced, resulting in more realistic, dynamic sound quality. Since the 1990s, with the proliferation of CDs, MDs, and digital audio tapes, the equipment for digital recording and broadcasting has progressed at an astonishing speed, allowing the sound designer's job to be more flexible. He is able to control and manipulate more factors with greater ease through increasingly sophisticated equipment. With the introduction of sound design, audio effects play an important role in many professional productions. Modern sound editing and processing technology can create something that does not exist in real life, such as surreal sounds and music. Through the creative expertise of the sound designer, audiences are rewarded with unprecedented feelings evoked through sounds that construct an imaginary world for lively, memorable performances.

3 在音響應用於劇場之前，人們是用這些方法來製造聲效的。想起也覺得手忙腳亂！ Before audio equipment was available, theatres used a variety of live performance methods to produce different sound effects. The results can be the occasional audio disaster.

Phonogr aph

年份 Year ： 1877 年

發明者 Inven ted by： n，1 847- 1931 ）湯馬士・愛迪生（ Thom as Ediso

★ 留聲機如何改變人們聽音樂的習慣？ ★ 錄音重播可不是件易事！ ★ 因為留聲機，我們才開始重視原唱。

★ How did phonographs modify our music listening habits? ★ Not long ago, replaying recorded sounds was a daunting task! ★ Due to phonographs, we attach more importance to original singers.

曾幾何時，世上只有現場演奏十九世紀的古典音樂中，一些交響曲的鋼琴四手聯彈改編作品非常流行。貝多芬、莫扎特等維也納經典，紛紛被改成在鋼琴上演奏，一首交響曲還出現了好幾個版本。想像一下你活在十九世紀：晚上在家中想聽貝多芬的《田園交響曲》，有什麼方法？除了自己演奏樂器外，十九世紀或以前的人，沒有辦法令聲音重現。要聽音樂，就得找人彈。留聲機的出現，把這種欣賞音樂的方式徹底改變。留聲機出現以前，所有音樂都是現場演奏的，聽到聲音的同時，總會見到樂手和演唱者，聲畫合一。然而留聲機能把聲音保留，擇時擇地重現，所以我們現在就有所謂現場與錄音的分別。發明留聲機的人，普遍認為是美國發明家愛迪生。其實，在愛迪生的留聲機於 1877 年面世前，已經有不同的發明家嘗試把聲音紀錄下來。 1857 年，法國的排字工人迪馬丁維爾發明了一個紀錄儀，把聲波紀錄在紙上，還在法國申請了專利。可是，這個發明最大的弊病，竟然就是只能紀錄，不能播放！當時紀錄下來的聲波，要到 2008 年才被科學家重現，原來是一首法國民歌。這種只能紀錄，不能播放的機器，當然未能普及。

Once upon a time, there was only live music In the 19th century, there was a classical music trend for symphonic works to include piano pieces adapted for four-handed play. Beethoven, Mozart and the creations of other composers were re-arranged for the piano, and it became common to have several versions of one symphony. But for music lovers living in the 19th century, listening to Beethoven's Pastoral Symphony in the comfort of their homes was not possible. Their choice was to play the musical instruments personally to recreate the sounds, as there was no invention yet that could record or reproduce sound. If someone wanted to listen to music, they had to find musicians to perform the songs specifically for them. Phonographs allowed the retention of sounds that could be replayed at any time or place following the actual performance. It drew a distinct line between live and recorded music. Its appearance completely changed the way that music was to be enjoyed. Before phonographs, all music was "live" – whenever music was heard, the musicians and singers could also be observed. Performers and their art always appeared together. The invention of the phonograph was generally attributed to American inventor Thomas Edison. Yet before Edison’s phonograph in 1877, there were other inventors who tried to record sound. In 1857, the French typesetter, Édouard-Léon S. de Martinville, invented a device that could record sound waves onto paper. He went as far as to apply for a patent in France. However, the greatest drawback of de Martinville’s invention was that it could only record: it could not play and be heard. His recorded sounds were not replayed until 2008 when scientists revived them; they were revealed to be a French folk song. Equipment that only recorded and lacked replay never really gained any popularity.

迪馬丁維爾和他發明的聲音紀錄儀。

Édouard-Léon S. de Martinville and his invention that recorded sound waves.

2 愛迪生與早期圓筒留聲機。

Thomas Edison and his early cylinder phonograph.

一句「瑪莉有隻小綿羊」，留聲機誕生了其實聲音重播的技術早在十九世紀已經出現。電話能把聲音由一端傳到遙遠的一端，其原理就是將聲波轉變成電訊訊號，以銅線傳到遠處，然後將訊號還原成聲音。愛迪生本來的意思，是紀錄電話傳送聲音的過程。所以留聲機的出現，可以說是無心插柳。雖然如此，愛迪生的確解決了一個重要的難題，就是如何把錄音準確重現。錄音時，他把針放在滾動的圓筒上（如錫箔、蠟筒），當聲音振動薄膜，電磁鐵便會依據振動強弱按壓指針，造成深淺不一的凹痕。播放的方法，正是把整個錄音過程反轉。愛迪生在實驗時向着話筒大喊一句「瑪莉有隻小綿羊」，這句說話竟能準確重播。愛迪生當時聽力已經極差，當他看到助手們興高采烈的互相祝賀，才知道這重現聲音的方法可行。之後的日子，一連串改良的機械陸續面世。由圓筒變唱片，而唱片的尺寸不停改變，及後又由單聲道演變成立體聲，無非也是令聲音的重播更加傳神。

Mary Had a Little Lamb marked the phonograph’s birth Voice replay technology first appeared in the 19th century, when telephones transmitted sounds from one location to another one somewhere distant from the source. It works like this: sounds were converted into electrical signals, which were then passes through copper wiring to the receiving end. The signals were then converted back to sound. Edison’s original intention was to make a recording of the sounds during the transmission process. Therefore, the phonograph that record sounds was arguably a serendipitous invention. Nevertheless, Edison resolved a major difficulty: how to accurately restore the sounds that were recorded. He came up with a process that placed a needle upon a revolving cylinder that was wrapped in tin foil or wax during recording. When sounds vibrated along the cylinder’s membrane, electromagnets would press the needle onto its coated surface according to the strength of the sounds, and caused dents in the needle’s track. Replay is made possible by reversing the whole process. During the experiment, Edison shouted “Mary had a little lamb” into a microphone, and the phrase was intelligibly reproduced on the other end. Ironically, Edison had poor hearing by that time. Only when he saw his assistants happily congratulating each other did he realise that his method was feasible. His invention led to a series of better quality equipment. For example, the cylinder became discs, which also underwent several changes in size. And instead of a single channel, stereo mimics how people hear with two ears instead of one, in order to make the sound playback more immediate and realistic.

a .. M oh.

在留聲機以前，沒有原汁原味這回事因着留聲機的出現，人類聽音樂的方式出現徹底的改變。錄音技術令音樂出現了「不是現場演奏」的選擇。整個二十世紀，就是由「全部都是現場演奏」變成「大部份都不是現場演奏」的年代。這還有更深層次的影響。現在我們聽音樂，着重原音。舉個例子，我們聽披頭四，總覺得披頭四艾比路錄音室出品的錄音最出色，其他人唱他們的歌極其量只是翻唱，並不是「原汁原味」。不過，在留聲機出現前，音樂演出不過轉瞬即逝，甚至同一個人演出，也不能保證每次都百分百準確。留聲機前的日子，翻唱、改編以及把原來的音樂重新演繹，幾乎不可避免。當時人們追求的是表演者的音樂造詣。但當聲音能夠完整保存後，我們便開始追求怎樣重現錄音那一刻的聲音：他唱得像披頭四錄音中的聲音嗎？正如貓王皮禮士利的曲詞拍擋萊伯與史托勒曾說：「我們沒有寫歌；我們只是製作唱片。」這正正是留聲機面世後音樂的寫照。

Prior to phonographs, there was no such thing as authenticity After the phonograph became available on the market, people’s way of listening to music completely altered. Recording technology gave music fans the option of "not live". In the 20th century, the “all music is live” concept became outdated.

People now emphasize on authenticity when they listen to music. For example, when Beatles’ songs are played, it is commonly felt that the most important cut is the Beatles’ original version produced in the legendary Abbey Road Studios. If other people sing Beatles tunes, they are merely cover bands – they lack the authenticity 二十世紀初的唱片式留聲機。 and gravitas of the first milestone recording. A phonograph in the early 20th Before phonographs, performances were played, century that played records. enjoyed and soon forgotten. For the same musician playing the same song, there was no guarantee that every performance would be as accurate or compelling as the last. Before phonographs, people most likely only heard cover versions of songs that were adaptations and re-interpretation of original music. Authenticity was not as important as performers who possessed technical prowess, superb interpretation and emotive skills. After sounds became faithfully preserved, music lovers pursued reproducing the moment when the sound first became a classic through its original recording: how similar are these performers to the Beatles in their recordings? As Jerry Leiber and Mike Stoller, Elvis Presley’s lyricist and composer partners, said: “We didn’t write songs; we wrote records.” It was an apt portrayal of music since the phonograph first appeared on the horizon.

各種黑膠唱碟與黑膠唱盤。

Various types of vinyl records and turntables.

Light Bulb

★ 因為電燈，我們不用再邊看劇邊抹汗了！ ★ 可以用射燈照亮演員了，還有不同顏色啊。 ★ 燈光也能講故事，真的嗎？

ances! g perform in h tc a w ile . sweat wh lours too o longer n e w ferent co , if s d lb e u s b u t d h g an n actors; ★ With li otlights o p s t s a c n ally? ★ We ca tories. Re s ll te o ng can als ★ Lighti 年份 Year： 1878-1879 年

發明者 Invented by：約瑟夫・斯萬（Joseph W. Swan，1829-1914）湯馬士・愛迪生（Thomas Edison，1847-1931）

告別又熱又焗的劇院！在斯萬與愛迪生相繼發明白熾燈後兩年，首次有人把這項新發明搬進劇場。英國倫敦西區的薩沃伊劇院在 1881 年成為世上首個使用電力照明系統的劇院——他們在舞台上一共安裝了 824 盞「斯萬燈」，而觀眾席亦安裝了 334 盞燈來照明。聽上去過千燈光好像很誇張，但其實當時每盞「斯萬燈」只有 16 支蠟燭的光度。當時薩沃伊劇院的業主卡特解釋道：「阻礙人們享受劇場演出的最大問題，無疑是整個劇院瀰漫著（源自煤氣燈光系統）的氣味和熱……電燈就不會燃燒氧氣，產生的熱力亦難以察覺。」除了可令觀眾樂於享受演出，欣賞節目時更舒適，更重要的是電燈的出現令舞台燈光可營造更多變化。

Goodbye to hot and stuffy opera houses! Two years after Joseph Swan and Thomas Edison invented the incandescent bulb, the new method of illumination was used for the first time in an opera house. In 1881, the Savoy Theatre in London’s West End district became the world’s first theatre to use electric lighting; altogether, 824 Swan’s incandescent lamps were installed on stage, as well as 334 lamps to illuminate the audience area. It would now seem that over a thousand lamps was overkill but each Swan's lamp in those days only had the luminosity of 16 candles. The Savoy Theatre’s owner, Richard D’Oyly Carte, explained that, “The greatest drawback to enjoying theatrical performances was, undoubtedly, the foul air and heat (from gas-lighting systems) which pervaded all theatre. Incandescent lamps consume no oxygen, and cause no perceptible heat.” Apart from making the audience feel more comfortable during the show, electric lamps allowed stage lighting to undergo a complete metamorphosis.

斯萬（左）與愛迪生（右）分別在英國及美國登記了白熾燈的專利，兩人更為此對簿公堂！

Joseph Swan (left) and Thomas Edison (right) patented their inventions of the incandescent lamp separately in the United Kingdom and the United States; the two even fought over their patents in court.

2 斯萬燈（上）及首個安裝電燈系統的薩沃伊劇院（左）

Swan's invented lamp (top), while the Savoy Theatre (left) was the first theatre to install an electrical lighting system.

把燈打在主角身上吧！透過複雜的設置，技術人員可以調較和改變電燈的光度，從而得到不同效果。這些電燈之中，除了有一般照明的燈外，更有用來模仿自然現象的設備和特定照明（例如把燈投映在某一位演員身上）的設備。十九世紀末，多間劇院因為煤氣燈引起的火災而付之一炬，故此當時最現代的劇院都轉為使用更安全的電燈。隨著電力舞台燈光愈來愈普及，舞台燈光的發展亦愈見成熟：此時，燈光設備主要區分為由下方投向舞台的「腳燈」、由上方投向舞台的「頂燈」和來自舞台兩邊的「側燈」。而在 1898 年開幕的斯特哥爾摩歌劇院（即現時的瑞典皇家歌劇院）更出現了三種顏色（白、紅、綠）的燈光系統。 46

電燈的出現，為舞台燈光開拓出一個全新的世界。本來只為照明的燈光，現在可以透過組合燈的角度和位置，調校不同光度和顏色，並投射於台上不同位置，便能夠產生各種效果。燈光設計需求愈來愈大，而燈光設備（包括燈具及燈光控制和供電的工具）的發展亦愈見成熟，為舞台燈光帶來更多的靈活性及可能性。

早期的舞台燈光設備，左邊的燈用來模擬日出，右邊則是用來打亮演員的射燈！

Early stage lighting equipment, where light on the left simulated the rising sun, while spotlight on the right highlighted actors.

Lighting up the stage and leading actors! Using complex settings, technicians could adjust the brightness of electrical lamps and produce many different effects. In addition to general illumination, artificial lights could be used for imitating natural phenomena, or to achieve specific illumination effects (such as casting lights on a particular actor). Towards the end of the 19th century, several theatres were burnt completely to the ground due to fires caused by gas lamps. Subsequently, most theatres switched to the safety of electric lamps. With electrical lighting’s growing popularity, stage lighting techniques also became more advanced. Lighting equipment at that time consisted of stage “footlights” that cast light from the floor upwards, “borderlights” casting light from the ceiling, and “winglights” from the two sides of the stage. In 1898, when the Stockholm Opera House (now Royal Swedish Opera) opened, it introduced a lighting system featuring three colours: white, red and green. The emergence of electric lamps created a completely new world for stage lighting. Originally, lamps were used only for illumination purposes. Over time, the angles and positions of lights, their intensities and colours and their projection onto different areas of the stage, produced many different dramatic effects. There is an ever-growing demand for further development in lighting equipment (including lighting controls and power supply tools) to bring increasing flexibility and drama to stage lighting.

燈光也能敘事嗎？其中，瑞士作家及設計師阿道夫・阿匹亞認為，當燈光隨音樂的層次流動和變化，應能創造出一種內在的張力，而光的強弱、顏色及方向也應能反映作品的氣氛與感覺。最佳例子是他為華格納的歌劇《崔斯坦與伊索德》設計的場面調度。其中一幕是這樣的：「透過光影變化，崔斯坦城堡的陽台被塑造成一個夢中寓言：當崔斯坦陷入昏迷時，本來照在陽台上的耀眼陽光變成血紅色的夕陽，再慢慢淡去剩下一抹暮光，最後伊索德白色的孤獨身影被瀰漫的黑暗包圍著。」* 那今天的舞台燈光又如何呢？著名燈光設計師法蘭斯・萊爾把舞台燈光界定為「一種既流動又具選擇性，能營造氣氛又像雕塑，並能 48

夠配合製作特定風格的照明。」。

亞阿道夫˙ 阿匹 a pi Ap e Adolph (1862–1928) 師阿匹亞，家兼舞台設計來自瑞士的作有洞見的人最計設光燈對是十九世紀末燈光設計均台舞代現信相物。很多人都影響。的他受深及作是源自他的創 wr ite r and wa s a Sw iss tfu l Ad olp he Ap pia for his ins igh wn kno ner th sta ge de sig in the lat e 19 ns sig de ng ary sta ge lig hti that contempor ed iev bel ny century. Ma tec hn iqu es de sig ns an d . sta ge lig hti ng influenced by him re we or m fro originated

阿匹亞為《崔斯坦與伊索德》設計時畫的素描，你看到舞台燈光的作用嗎？

A sketch by Adolphe Appia for the stage design of Tristan and Isolde , demonstrating the importance of stage lighting to the overall success of the opera.

今天，舞台燈光不只是用來照明，更可以在細微之處感動觀眾！

Nowadays, stage lighting is used not only for illumination, but can elicit deep emotional outpouring from audience members. 49

Can lighting be used to narrate events? The Swiss writer and designer, Adolphe Appia (1862-1928) along with his peers, felt that lighting together with music had the capacity to work at different levels and to take on various forms to create dramatic tension. Lighting’s intensity, colour and angles could also reflect a performance’s atmosphere and mood. As an example of lighting effects’ importance, he referred to Richard Wagner’s Tristan and Isolde , and how the mise-en-scène was designed: “The terrace in front of Tristan's castle is modelled in light and shadows as a dream vision in dazzling sunlight when Tristan sinks into unconsciousness, in the blood-red light of sunset fading into twilight and, finally, into a hazy darkness around the lonely, white figure of Isolde.” * Well, how about today’s stage lighting? Renowned lighting designer Francis Reid defined stage lighting as “a fluid, selective, atmospheric, sculptural illumination appropriate to the style of a particular production”.

參考 reference

* BERGMAN, Gosta Mauri. Lighting in the Theatre .

Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell International. 1977

Cinem atogr aph

年份 Year： 1895 年

發明者 Invented by：路易・盧米埃（Louis Lumière，1864-1948）奧古斯都・盧米埃（Auguste Lumière，1862-1954）

太多了！影之父的人電為成想 ★ 。真實的機器 ★ 使夢變成 movies”! nted to be the“father of ★ Too many people wa make dreams come true. ★ A machine which can

電影誕生是一場比賽電影誕生至今不過短短一百餘年，已躍身成我們生活中不可缺少的娛樂之一。今天我們能在屏幕上看到超出想像的未來世界、幻想空間，或感動人心的愛情故事、寫實小品……一切全都起源自盧米埃兄弟於 1895 年首次以活動電影機於巴黎葛蘭咖啡廳播放電影。發明電影的過程就像一場競賽。那邊廂在美國，愛迪生找來助手迪克森以影像版的留聲機為概念，於 1889 年成功研發能夠播放活動影像的活動電影放映機，可惜這部機器每次只能供一人觀看。這邊廂德國的史卡丹諾斯基兄弟於 1895 年 11 月首次用拜奧鏡（活動電影機）舉行史上首次電影放映，卻因系統過於笨重而未能流行。在史卡丹諾斯基兄弟放映會八週後，法國的盧米埃兄弟得到了名留青史的機會。他們發明了一部以每秒 16 格的速度拍攝與放映錄像的機器 — 活動電影機，並於 1895 年 12 月 28 日在葛蘭咖啡廳舉行放映會，播放奧古斯都・盧米埃夫婦餵兒子吃飯、海浪拍岸以及一個小孩對澆水園丁惡作劇的片段等十部短片。經過劇烈的追逐戰，「電影發明者」的桂冠最終落在盧米埃兄弟與他們的活動電影機頭上。

The dawn of motion pictures was a race to be the first Movies were born just a century ago but have since become one of our most indispensable forms of entertainment. Today, on the big screen, we can watch the future world unfold or fantasies beyond our wildest imaginations; we can participate in heart-wrenching love stories or get behind the scenes with real lifebased documentaries. We owe it to the Lumière brothers, who made the first movies with their cinematograph and presented them in 1895 at the Grand Café in Paris. The invention of film making was like an Olympic race to determine who would be the first to claim the groundbreaking technology’s credit. In America, Thomas Edison had an assistant called 盧米埃兄弟的活動電影機。 William K.L Dickson; together, they conceived of an image version of the phonograph. In 1889, The Cinematograph by the Lumière Brothers. they successfully introduced the kinetoscope that could play moving pictures. Unfortunately, the machine could be seen by only one viewer at a time. Meanwhile, German brothers Max and Emil Skladanowsky produced the bioscope . In November 1895, they presented the world’s first movie show. However, their equipment was cumbersome and failed to gain widespread popularity. Only eight weeks later, the French Lumière brothers got a chance to have their names recorded for posterity. They invented the cinematograph, which captured and played images at 16 frames per second. On 28 December 1895, they offered a screening featuring ten short films at the Grand Café in Paris. The movies included Auguste Lumière and his wife feeding their baby son, waves lapping against a shoreline, and a comedy where a boy played a trick upon a gardener. After an intense race to get their invention out to a wide market, the Lumière brothers were ultimately crowned “fathers of movies”.

由盧米埃兄弟攝於 1895 年的《工廠下班》是世上首部電影。今天我們會覺得片中人物走動很不自然，因為當時拍攝及放映速度是每秒 16 格，比今天我們正常放映速度每秒 24 格慢近三分一。

The world’s first movie was Workers Leaving the Factory shot by the Lumière brothers in 1895. Today’s movie goers may feel that the film’s characters moved somewhat unnaturally because the film was shot at a speed of 16 frames per second, approximately one third slower than contemporary cinema’s usual rate of 24 frames per second.

3 54

梅里葉的《登月之旅》，拍下撞上月亮眼睛的火箭、長得像螳螂的月球人……因為電影，再天馬行空的幻想也可變成真實。

Georges Méliès’s A Trip to the Moon showed a rocket hitting the eye of the moon. Aliens there looked like praying mantises. As this was a movie, any abstraction or fantasy was depicted as an accepted reality.

把不可能變為可能今天我們理所當然地視電影為「夢工場」。不過電影初面世時，紀錄的不過是日常生活、自然景觀或簡單笑料等瑣碎片段。第一個以電影造夢的人是法國魔術師梅里葉，他在 1896 年首次接觸盧米埃兄弟的新發明後，便開始在自己的劇院放映電影。為此狂熱的他更開始當起導演拍戲，在當中加入天馬行空的故事、戲法與背景，甚至建造起專用攝影棚。他最為人熟知的作品是 1902 年的《登月之旅》，講述一班人登月探險，遇上月球人的驚險故事。梅里葉視電影為夢想成真，然而現實卻不容他繼續發夢。由於投資過鉅導致債台高築，放映收入又不如理想，他最終變賣所有還債，過世前一直隱身於妻子的雜貨店工作。2011 年，馬田史高西斯《雨果的巴黎奇幻歷險》便以梅里葉的故事為藍本，向這位造夢家致敬。雖然梅里葉的故事以悲劇告終，電影卻因他豐富的想像力開拓出一個嶄新世界，並晉身成二十世紀最具影響力的藝術媒介。

Making the impossible possible Today, we rightfully see the movie studio as “a dream factory”. However, when movies were first launched, they only portrayed daily lives, natural landscapes, or simple jokes and other trivial subjects. The French magician, Georges Méliès, first came across the invention of the Lumière brothers in 1896, then he began screening films at his own theatre. Méliès became obsessed with the movies and also started to direct films, adding fantastical story plots with magical tricks and backgrounds, and even set up a dedicated film studio. His best known work was 1902’s A Trip to the Moon , which chronicled the thrilling story of a group of explorers landing upon the moon and meeting strange looking aliens. Méliès’ filmmaking work made dreams come true, but his reality was challenging. He could not go on indefinitely dreaming, as he had invested a lot of money in cinematic equipment and shooting movies. But the revenue he generated was not enough to subsist on. Eventually, Méliès sold off everything to pay his debts. Afterwards, he became a bitter recluse working in his wife’s grocery store until he passed away. In 2011, Martin Scorsese paid homage to Méliès in the movie Hugo , which was based on the real life story of one of the world’s first cinematic dream makers. Although the story of Méliès ended sadly, his rich imagination opened a whole new world to budding film makers. Movies have emerged to become the 20th century’s most influential art medium.

I can le what yout you watch want !

當初誰也沒想到，這項新奇的娛樂會席捲全球。從二十年代蘇聯電影大師愛森斯坦提出以剪接創造張力的蒙太奇，到四、五十年代寫實主義電影崛起，電影在歐洲發展為自成一格的藝術。在地球另一面，電影在美國則迅速發展成龐大的娛樂工業——荷里活。由片廠主導的荷里活製作，講求效率、娛樂性與大明星，務求吸引觀眾乖乖付費進場。1927 年，首部有聲電影《爵士歌手》在美國面世，標誌著荷里活黃金時代開始。世界各地也陸續發展出自己的電影文化，如日本電影、印度寶萊塢、華語片、拉丁美洲電影等等。自盧米埃兄弟當年在咖啡館放映至今，從無聲到有聲，從黑白到彩色，從菲林到數碼……電影不斷推陳出新，成為普羅大眾最喜愛的娛樂與藝術形式之一。

At first, no one thought much about this novel form of entertainment, much less believed that films could capture the world’s attention to the extent it does today. In the 1920s, Sergei Eisenstein, a legendary Russian director, introduced a splicing technique called montage to create tension. In the 1940s and 1950s, movies adopted a realism style that grew to become a standard genre in Europe. On the other side of the Atlantic, Hollywood movies rapidly became a huge entertainment industry. Hollywood was dominated by studio productions emphasising efficiency, entertainment value and big stars, in order to attract a wide audience willing to pay for admission. The first movie featuring an accompanying audio track was The Jazz Singer in 1927, marking the start of the golden age of Hollywood. Subsequently, movies all over the world began to develop their own distinctive cultures, including Japanese cinema, Bollywood romantic musicals from India, Chinese films, Latin American films, among many others. Since the Lumière brothers’ café shows, movies have evolved from silence to surround sound, from black and white to colour, and from celluloid to high definition digital. Today, moving pictures are one of the world’s favourite ways to enjoy art and entertainment.

為慶祝電影誕生一百年，包括大衞連治、張藝謀及基阿魯斯達米等 41 位導演，在 1995 年利用活動電影機拍攝了每條 52 秒長的無聲短片，合輯成《Lumière and Company》一片。為了模仿當年盧米埃兄弟的拍攝方式，每個鏡頭最多只能拍三次！

To celebrate the 100th anniversary of the birth of filmmaking, 41 directors including David Lynch, Zhang Yimou and Abbas Kiarostami used the cinematograph in 1995. Each contributor made a 52-second silent film, all eventually part of content in a movie called Lumière and Company . To emulate the Lumière brothers’ practice, each shot was only allowed a maximum of three takes!

Magic

Projector

★ 投影機從街角 ★ 用光影來繪畫

移往大劇院！

佈景。

ulent opera houses! m street corners into op fro ved mo s tor jec Pro ★ ative backdrops. became the tools for cre ws do sha and hts Lig ★

年份 Year： 1900 年

發明者 Invented by：阿道夫・李勒巴（ Adolf Linnebac h，1876 -1963）

從小屏幕到大劇場在平面投射影像的概念自古以來皆有：除了公元前四世紀古希臘學者阿里士多德及歐幾里德提出過類似針孔攝影機的光學現象外，十世紀阿拉伯學者海什木的著作中已有關於暗箱的記載，而惠更斯發明的幻燈則在十七世紀出現。前者能夠把物件影像投射於屏幕上，成為攝影機的前身；後者則能夠把圖畫投射到平面上，由此發展出後來的投影技術。當時幻燈是一種大眾娛樂，人們會在牆上、煙霧或半透明的屏幕上投映一些恐怖影像，如白骨、魔鬼、幽靈等等，十八、十九世紀期間在歐洲大受歡迎。投影技術應用於劇場上，則要待到德國發明家李勒巴發明的「李勒巴 60

投影機」面世。它能把印在玻璃或雲母片的影像從屏幕後方投射出來，或從台前投射到背景上。大概二十年代開始，英國倫敦西區的劇場開始在製作中採用投影機；德國劇場導演及監製皮斯卡特亦早於 1925 年起採用這種新技術；在美國，場景及影光設計師麥哲納亦嘗試把它應用在作品中，他在羅傑斯與漢默斯坦二世於 1947 年的音樂劇《Allegro》中，便以投影取代實物場景。

Gran

dpap

1 投影機的前身——幻燈本是種大眾娛樂，當時的人用油燈做光源，於屏幕或牆上投映不同的圖畫來取樂。

The magic lantern was a predecessor of the projector. It was a popular form of entertainment where people used the lamp as a light source to project onto a screen or wall, and showed different images – usually horror ones – for the public’s amusement.

From the small screen to the arena theatre The concept of projecting images onto surfaces has been with mankind since ancient times. The earliest known projector was attributed to the 4th century B.C. Greek scholars Aristotle and Euclid, who explored optical phenomena found in devices similar to the pinhole camera. They were followed by the 10th century Arab scholar Alhazen who wrote about camera obscura and the 17th century Christiaan Huygens who invented the magic lantern. The camera obscura – Latin for dark box – could project an object’s image onto a screen; it became the predecessor of the camera. The magic lantern was able to project pictures onto a surface and eventually developed into projection technology. The magic lantern was a popular source of entertainment for the general public throughout the 18th and 19th centuries. People would cast projected images onto a wall or translucent screen within a dim environment; the surface did not have to be a solid and also included white smoke or mist. The spooky surrounds paved the way for surreal and horror-related images including skeletons, devils and ghosts. The usage of projection technology in theatres had to wait until German Adolf Linnebach invented the Linnebach projector. His creation projected images from a glass or mica slide from either behind the screen or the front of the stage to generate scenery-based backgrounds. In the 1920s, London’s West End theatres began to use projectors in their stage productions. German theatrical director and producer Erwin Piscator also adopted the technology in 1925; while in America, theatrical scene and lighting designer Jo Mielziner applied the technique in his production for Richard Rodgers and Oscar Hammerstein II’s musical Allegro in 1947. For Allegro , projection replaced background props.

惠更斯發明的幻燈。

The magic lantern invented by Christiaan Huygens.

光與影也可以成為佈景日漸成熟的劇場投影技術，使舞台背景有更多變化。五、六十年代，製作設計師華爾頓與燈光設計師普博爾合力讓投影擔當更重要的角色：他們在倫敦西區及百老匯的演出多次以投影作為背景，並大獲好評。但當時的投影技術不太穩定：華爾頓曾憶述時事諷刺劇《One Over the Eight》的一場演出中，投影在技術綵排時清晰完美，偏偏開幕時放置投影機的高塔開始震動，以致影像不能融合。還有人為因素：有一次整盒幻燈片在演出前跌碎了，幸得製作室幾天內趕製新拷貝來解決危機，不過普博爾多年後才發現事件原來不是意外——投影機操作員因擔心新技術會取代繪景師同僚的工作，而在工會指使下故意推跌幻燈片。劇場投影技術的發展卻沒有因此停下來。1979 年，投影設計師哈林頓結合了當時的新科技與新思維，為音樂劇《戀上你的歌》設計出更鮮明生動的影像，成為劇場投影技術及美學上的里程碑。她曾如此形容此劇：「它（投影）以普普藝術主導，非常能夠反映那個時代。」

Light and shadow became stage props Theatrical projection technology came of age in the mid-20th century, as producers and directors demanded increased sophistication for their backdrops. In the 1950s and 1960s, production designer Tony Walton and lighting designer Richard Pilbrow collaborated in West End and Broadway productions that allowed the projector to assume significant roles. Their numerous projected stage backgrounds garnered respected critical acclaim and were welcomed with enthusiasm by audiences. However, projection technology was still unstable – Walton recalled that in a scene of the revue One Over the Eight , the projected images were perfectly clear in the technical rehearsal. On opening night, unfortunately, the projection tower began to shake, resulting in out of sync images with the action on stage. There were many human factors that contributed to the disastrous first few nights as well, including an entire box of fragile glass slides that were accidentally smashed right before a show. The studio was quick to act, and made new copies of the slides within a few days that put an end to the crisis of no background for a major show. Pilbrow discovered that the event was not an accident many years later: fearing that new technology would replace scenery painters and other workers, a projector operator deliberately dropped the slides at the instigation of the trades’ union. Despite attempts at sabotage, theatrical projection technology’s progress remained uninterrupted. In 1979, projection designer Wendall K. Harrington combined new technology and novel ideas for the musical They’re Playing Our Song . Her vivid projected images for the production became a milestone for theatrical projection technology as well as for dramatic aesthetics. She described the play’s projection design concept as “very Pop Art-oriented; very reflective of its time”.

華爾頓與普博爾 1961 年的《One Over the Eight》，大量運用了投映幻影片代替手繪佈景。

Tony Walton and Richard Pilbrow’s stage production of One Over the Eight in 1961 extensively used slide projectors depicting imagery instead of hand-painted scenery.

近年投影技術在劇場愈來愈流行，除用來塑造演出空間或成為演出一部份外，甚至能與表演者互動。隨著數碼投影機出現，影像不再來自玻璃幻燈片，而是電腦，故此演員與流動影像一同演出並非難事。如 2004 年英國劇作家馬可以網絡世界為背景的黑色喜劇《Age-SexLocation》便讓預錄的演員影像與台上演員一同演出。在安娜琪舞蹈劇場及叁式於 2011 年在台灣上演的舞作《第七感官》裡頭，投影成為一個不停變化的演出空間：舞者看似隨著投影變化而舞動，投影也好像回應著舞者的動作，為觀眾帶來嶄新的視覺衝擊。 In recent years, projection technology has become increasingly popular in dramatic productions. They shape the performance space, sometimes become part of the performance, and can even interact with performers. With the emergence of digital projectors, images are now generated by computers, not glass slides. The high degree of control digital projection allows actors to perform seamlessly alongside the flow of images. In 2004, British playwright Marcus Markou’s black comedy Age-Sex-Location used the online world as a setting. He made pre-recorded videos of actors and projected them to perform along with live actors on stage. In 2011, the Anarchy Dance Theatre and Ultra Combos staged a dance production in Taiwan entitled Seventh Sense . During the show, projectors provided a constantly morphing performance space. Dancers seemed to follow images that changed as they danced, and the projection also seemed to respond to the dancers’ movements. Their aesthetical impact gave audiences a new and memorable visual treat to savour.

來到電腦時代，投映技術有更多玩法，例如在《第七感官》（2011）中化身成一個不停變化的背景。

In the current computer age, projector technology can further trick the audience’s eye. Concepts include dancers responding to a constantly changing background in the 2011 production Seventh Sense .

Television

年份 Year： 1923-1927 年

發明者 Invented by：約翰・貝爾德（John L. Baird，1888-1946）、費羅・法恩斯沃斯（Philo T. Farnsworth，1906-1971）、維拉蒂米爾・斯福羅金（Vladimir K. Zworykin，1888-1982）

★ 電視是誰發明的？眾說紛云。 ★ 因為電視搶客，電影急急改革！ ing the te regard a b e d ly e n. is a liv ★ There ventor of televisio nce in true ased audierm re c in d e in fo vision ga pt and re ★ As telemovies had to ada 67 share, ! ly quick

貝爾德的機械式電視機，證明了無線傳送影像是可行的。但因為轉盤的速度有限，最後播放出來的影像看來很模糊不清。

Baird’s mechanical television showed that wireless transfer of images was feasible; however the rotating disc had a limited scanning speed, resulting in blurry and distorted images.

早期電視機的廣告，強調一家大小在家看電視的快樂時光。

Early television advertisements emphasised the whole family happily watching television at home.

電視之父大亂鬥卡通片是小朋友至愛、烹飪節目是主婦靈感來源、令人晚晚追看的電 68

視劇、帶領我們走遍世界的旅遊節目……曾幾何時，香港人吃飯的基本配備是電視機。自二十年代面世起，電視機從新奇的發明，逐漸成為每個家庭必備的電器。電視機的出現，改變了人們過往娛樂消閒的習慣，把外出尋樂的人們帶回家中。發明這個神奇盒子的「電視機之父」，不是一個人，而是三個發明家。 1925 年，蘇格蘭發明大亨貝爾德在英國倫敦 Selfridges 百貨示範他的新發明：一個以無線傳送影像的小箱子——機械式電視。這個發明一推出即引起哄動，可惜因為透過圓盤轉動的機械掃描速度太慢，影像強差人意，根本就不實用。真正流行起來的，是兩年後才首次面世的電子電視。1927 年，出身於農民家庭的美國發明家法恩斯沃斯，從犁地得到靈感，構思出以電子掃描法顯影的電視機。這回，電視播放的畫面流暢清晰，也是往後電視發展的起點。問題是，這部電視的核心元件「電子攝影管」，其原型「光電攝像管」早於 1923 年由美藉俄裔工程師斯福羅金發明並登記專利。三個發明家都聲稱自己才是「電視機之父」，法恩斯沃斯與斯福羅金甚至要打官司爭取電視的專利權。不過，這項發明最大得益者肯定是普羅大眾。多虧有電視機，我們懶懶地躺在梳化上便能穿梭不同世界：新聞、綜藝節目、電視劇、電影……只需動一根指頭，我們便能找到合適自己的節目。電視機的出現，令人們能把娛樂消閒活動帶回家中。

The fight to claim the “father of television” title Cartoons are adored by children, cooking shows are a source of inspiration for housewives, melodramas encourage people to follow a serial every evening, and travel programmes transport viewers around the globe. For decades, television has been a crucial toy for Hong Kong residents as they gather during family meals. Since its launch in the 1920s, television has evolved from a novelty to an essential appliance in every home. Televisions changed our pursuit of entertainment during leisure hours as it drew fun-seekers back home. A single person cannot claim credit for being the “father of television”, as three people from three different countries were involved. In 1925, Scottish inventor and entrepreneur John L. Baird demonstrated his new invention at London’s Selfridges department store. It was a small box showing images transmitted wirelessly, or a mechanical television. The invention sparked commotion but it used a rotating disc, resulting in slow mechanical scanning speed and unsatisfying images. It was deemed too impractical for public use. Things changed two years later, when the first electronic television was launched. In 1927, American inventor Philo T. Farnsworth comes from humble farming roots and was inspired to develop an electronic scanning television while ploughing land. His device yielded clear and smooth images on a screen, and it became the starting point for television’s future development. There was one problem – the core element behind Farnsworth’s invention was an “electron scanning tube” based on the iconoscope (optical camera tube) that had already been patented in America by the Russian-born engineer Vladimir K. Zworykin in 1923. Each of the three inventors claimed to be the “father of television”; Farnsworth and Zworykin even fought it out in court over television’s patent rights. Yet the biggest beneficiary of their genius was definitively the general public. Thanks to television, anyone can plop down on a sofa and remote surf between different worlds: news, variety shows, dramas, movies. Just by pressing a button, there is a programme on air that suited any mood or inclination.

為甚麼還要出門看電影？當提供居家娛樂的電視日漸流行，首當其衝的是電影業。試想像，當電視與戲院播放一樣的節目，你會寧願留在舒適的家中，還是特意出門去看電影？在美國，二戰過後的五十年代，汽車流行令愈來愈多家庭定居鄉郊，電視也迅速進駐每家每戶的客廳，出門看電影頓時變了一件麻煩事。一直呼風喚雨的荷里活片廠，首次感到電視的威脅，絞盡腦汁要找到突圍而出的方法。粗製濫造的電影被淘汰，片廠們寧願把錢花在數量不多卻有賣點的作品上：文學改編、明星主演、豪華大製作……可以說，電視令電影進行了一次去蕪存菁的過程。更重要的是，面對電視的挑戰，電影真真正正進化了。為了勝過畫面又小又黑白的電視機，彩色電影、闊銀幕電影紛紛出籠，吸引觀眾離開電視機，重新回到電影院的懷抱。

由黑白、彩色到數碼高清，電視的技術推陳出新，卻不再是電影的競爭對手，相反，甚至變成重要盟友。七十年代，美國興起收費電視台，這些電視台需要有吸引力的節目令觀眾甘心掏錢收看，於是紛紛打上電影的主意。事實上電影公司也樂於把版權出售賺錢，保障電影製作收入，這樣的合作模式推廣至世界各地。來到數碼化的今天，我們的家甚至能化身為小戲院，只要一個遙控器，便能在彈指間選看自己喜歡的電影。現在想看電影不一定要進戲院，安坐家中也可享受到觀看電影的樂趣。

Hi ! Hi !

技術成熟的彩色電影在三十年代已經出現，如 1939 年的《綠野仙蹤》便是好例子。但因為壟斷、成本高昂等問題而未能流行，要到五十年代，受電視威脅下才真正取代黑白電影。

The technology for colour movies had matured in the 1930s. A good example was The Wizard of Oz in 1939. However, due to monopolization of movies and the high production costs, colour movies did not prevail until the 1950s, when movies were threatened by television.

Why still go out to watch movies?

As television became increasingly popular in the home, the film industry bore the brunt. Imagine, if television and cinemas play the same programmes, would you prefer to stay and watch it in the comfort of your home, or purposely go out to watch a movie? In the 1950s America saw a surge in affordable automobiles, allowing many families to seek larger homes in safe and leafy suburban areas. Televisions crept into every living room. Going out to watch a movie suddenly became troublesome. Hollywood film studios that used to call the shots felt threatened by the changing times, and some struggled for survival. Substandard movies were eliminated. Studios would rather spend money on a small number of high quality films, such as literature or adaptations of classics, star-studded or luxurious big productions. Television essentially gave the movie business a spring cleaning. More importantly, movies evolved when faced with the challenges posed by television. In order to vie for attention away from small black-and-white television screens, movies offered colour, widescreen and other new features to attract television viewers back to the cinema. Television technology also evolved from black-and-white to colour and digital high definition. It got to the point where film no longer competed with television but rather became an important ally. In the 1970s, pay-TV gained exponential popularity in America. These television stations needed attractive programming to get audiences to pay for content, leading to production of original content with excellent quality. Most of the contents were in the movie genre. In fact, film studios were willing to sell their copyrights in order to guarantee proceeds and fund production costs. Such a model of cooperation spread throughout the world. In this digital age, our homes can become small theatres, as television screens become thinner, wider and with better sound quality – more and more mimicking a cinematic experience.

與彩色電影一樣，闊銀幕技術很早就有，只是沒人用。直到電視在五十年代大舉入屋，片廠轉為採用 35 毫米菲林，畫面比傳統的 4:3 比例寬廣得多。二十世紀霍士在 1953 年推出的《聖袍千秋》，便利用了他們自家研發的早期闊銀幕系統。

Like colour, widescreen technology was available early on but seldom used. When television entered every home, studios started using 35mm film for a much broader picture than the traditional 4:3 ratio. In 1953, 20th Century Fox produced The Robe using the studio’s own early widescreen technique.

Comp uter

r：年份 Y ea 1年 1832-194

1）、 y： 1791-187 ve nt ed b Babbage， es rl 發明者 In ha C 、巴貝奇（ 12-1954）查爾斯・ Turing，19 10-1995）靈（Alan 19 圖，・ se 倫 Zu 艾 rad 楚澤（Kon 康拉德・

★ 電腦：由只會運算到無所不能。 ★ 滲透生活與藝術的電腦。 73

★ 當所有藝術也與電腦有關……

★ Computers were used for calculations; now, they can accomplish anything. ★ Computers have permeated our everyday lives as well as art. ★ Today, all art is somehow related to the computer...

巴貝奇的「差分機一號」

Babbage’s Difference Engine Number One

以樂高模型模擬的「圖靈通用機」

Turing’s Universal Machine as simulated by Lego

楚澤的「Z3」

Zuse’s Z3

從 0 到 1 的過程

「Computer」這個詞彙，出現於十七世紀的西方，最初指從事計算工作的人；直到二百年後，因為一位名叫巴貝奇的英國數學家及發明家，「Computer」一詞的意義才改變了，從此變成人工計算機的專屬名稱。十九世紀初，巴貝奇設計了「差分機一號」和更複雜的「分析機」，是最早的機械式計算機，以齒輪帶動運算，後者除了有算術單元，還有資料暫存器，可以執行更高階的程式，非常接近現代意義上的電腦。兩台機器本來都由英國政府出資製造，卻因為設計過於複雜、零件太難製作等原因，導致政府最終撤資，兩部機器都沒有完成，但卻是電腦的起點。在分析機的設計出現一百年後，英國另一位徹底改寫電腦歷史的傳奇人物─艾倫・圖靈發表了「通用機」的概念，指出任何運算式任務都可以由單一的機器完成。現在我們把多功能的電腦視為理所當然，這在 1930 年代卻是非常前衛的構思，現代電腦的核心概念正正源於圖靈。二次大戰爆發，電腦科技的研究成為盟軍和軸心國的隱形戰場：1941 年，受納粹德軍資助的德國發明家楚澤開發出世上第一台有完備程式控制功能的全自動數位電腦「Z3」；1944 年一月，「巨物」抵達英軍的情報中心布萊切利園，這台全電動的機器用上大量真空管，運算速度比早期以電動切換器驅動的電腦快得多，被用於破解德軍最高統帥部與各地軍隊之間的加密電報訊息，是盟軍最終勝利背後的秘密武器。暱稱「寶貝」的「曼徹斯特小型實驗機」於 1948 年面世，是首台可以將程式儲存於記憶體的電腦，標誌著軟體時代的開端。1951 年，首台商用電腦「費倫蒂馬克一號」面世；1965 年，首台個人桌上電腦「Programma 101」開售，從此專業技術人員以外的人也可以使用電腦，電腦變成龐大的商機，品牌各出其謀，爭相提升產品水平吸引顧客，發展日新月異。

The road from 0 to 1 The English term “computer” first appeared in the 17th century to denote a person who performed calculations. Two centuries later, thanks to British mathematician and inventor Charles Babbage, the term became the exclusive term for a man made computing machine. In the early 19th century, Babbage designed the Difference Engine Number One , followed by the more complicated Analytical Engine ; together, they were the earliest mechanical computers and employed wheels and gears to drive calculations. The latter had an arithmetic logic unit and data memory, allowing it to execute more advanced programmes similar to the computers we use today. Both machines received funding from the British government. Due to their complicated designs with numerous difficult to manufacture parts, the government halted further funding. Neither machine was completely realised. However, it marked the starting point for computers. Another century elapsed before a fellow British inventor rewrote the history of computers. The legendary Alan Turing published the concept of a Universal Machine , which proposed that any computation task could be undertaken by a single machine. Today, we take for granted that computers are multifunctional. In the 1930s, the concept was progressive and innovative thinking. Essentially, the core concept for modern computers can be traced to Turing. After World War II broke out across Europe, computer technology and research became the invisible battlefield for the Allies and Axis powers. In 1941, funded by the Nazi Army, the German inventor Konrad Zuse developed the first automatic digital computer Z3 with complete programme control. In January 1944, the British Army’s intelligence centre Bletchley Park began using Colossus , an all-electronic programmable computer that used multiple vacuum tubes and featured computing speeds much faster than earlier models using electric switches. Computers were useful for cracking encrypted telegraphic messages between German high-level military commanders: they were the secret weapons behind the Allies’ eventual victory. In 1948, nicknamed Baby , the Manchester Small Scale Experimental Machine was launched, it was the first computer to store programmes in its memory. It hailed the beginning of the software era. In 1951, the first commercial computer Ferranti Mark I became available. In 1965, the first personal desktop computer Programma 101 was introduced to the general market, allowing access to computers for users who were untrained as professional technicians. The former calculators are big business now, with each manufacturer seeking competitive edge and regularly updating or improving products to attract new customers. Computers are one of the fastest evolving inventions today, with frequent upgrades and new models launching.

電腦征服生活及藝術世界以電腦為基礎的創作，也是出現於五六十年代，當時的創作者大部分是科學家和工程師，因為只有他們才可使用大學實驗所內的電腦設施。電腦科學家斯特雷奇為「費倫蒂馬克一號」編寫了一個電腦程式，讓機器以隨機選擇的浪漫字詞拼湊成一封封情信，有些人視之為世上最早的電腦藝術作品。「亨利繪畫機器」是另一個早期電腦藝術的例子，大學哲學系講師德斯蒙德・亨利以二戰時用於計算空投炸彈位置的電腦為藍本，設計自動繪製抽象圖案的機器。1965 年，西德和美國相繼舉辦了電腦藝術展覽，是電腦藝術進入大眾媒體和學界論述的時刻。從桌上電腦、筆記型、平板電腦到智能手機，電腦的體積愈來愈小，記憶體愈來愈大，運作速度愈來愈快，今天的電腦已經不僅是我們日 76

常工作與生活的必要工具，它是我們身體與大腦的延伸；電腦產品的選擇同時更是生活態度的標誌，是我們建構自我身份認同的方式。近年在喬布斯領導下 , 一系列智能產品的推出，掀起全球熱潮。他結合功能性與流麗外觀設計的產品實在與藝術品無異。喬布斯本人更成為藝術家與流行偶像的混合體，備受崇拜，他的產品印證了今天「藝術、設計、科技」三個範疇的互為交疊。

Computers dominate our lives and the art world Computer-based art began appearing in the 1950s and 1960s. Most of them were created by scientists and engineers, as only they had access to advance computer facilities within university laboratories. Computer scientist Christopher Strachey wrote an algorithm based on the Ferranti Mark I which randomly selected romantic words to string together into love letters; some people see these as the world’s first computer generated art. The Henry Drawing Machine in 1960 is another example of early computer-based art. Desmond P. Henry, a university lecturer in philosophy, used World War II computer-generated models for aerial bombing positions as his blueprint, and designed a machine which automatically drew abstract paintings. In 1965, West Germany and America separately organised computer art exhibitions, marking the time when computer art entered mass consumption and academic discourse. From desktops, laptops, tablet PCs, to smart phones, computers are getting smaller in size, their memory is getting bigger, and operating speed is getting faster and faster. Today’s computer is not simply a necessary tool in our daily lives – it is an extension of our minds and bodies. Our choice of computer products has taken on symbolic meaning and reflects our personal attitudes and self-identity. In recent years, under the leadership of the late Steve Jobs, a series of smart products was launched, these products set off a global phenomenon, his products combined functionality and graceful external designs. There became no real difference between the product’s design and a work of art. Jobs himself was viewed as a hybrid artist and pop idol, and was worshipped for his entrepreneurial spirit just as much as his influence upon product design breakthroughs. His products cross over the realms of art, design, and technology, seamlessly blurring the lines between the three.

4 斯特雷奇於五十年代初以電腦隨機拼湊甜言蜜語，寫成一封封情書。藝術家大衛・連在 2012 年以現代科技重現，還命名為《情書 1.0》。

Christopher Strachey used a computer in the early 1950s to randomly string together emotional words into love letters. In 2012, the artist David Link re-enacted the exercise using modern technology, naming his work Love Letters 1.0.

「電腦藝術」還存在嗎？以往人們統稱那些用上電腦製作或展示的作品為電腦藝術，但時至今日，攝影、電影、動畫等傳統媒介與電腦的交集愈來愈多，從製作到發佈、展示，或多或少都會用到電腦，就連西方藝術中最傳統的媒介 ──繪畫和雕塑──也不例外。雕塑家可以用程式設計雕塑的形狀，再把它變成實物，殿堂級畫家如大衛・霍克尼近年也開始在平板電腦上繪畫，示範在平板電腦與智能手機的年代如何進行藝術生產。近年以程式主導的電腦藝術提出了許多問題，關乎智能時代的原創性、隨機性在藝術中的位置、人工智能的界限等等。2013 年五月，瑞典藝術家喬納斯・隆德在鹿特丹的藝術館舉辦個展，電腦程式經分析各大藝術網站的資料後，「創作」出最能迎合市場的作品，連作品的名稱都是看似隨機湊合的無意義詞組。在這個例子中，所謂的藝術作品到 78

底是電腦衍生的實物裝置，還是藝術家編寫的電腦程式？抑或兩者皆是，還是兩者皆非？「創作」、「藝術品」、「藝術家」的本質為何，以及是否需要重新定義，正是我們面對電腦藝術反複思考的問題。

大衛・霍克尼利用平板電腦繪畫的作品。這會成為繪畫的新方向嗎？

David Hockney used a tablet PC to create drawings. Will this be art’s future direction?

Does “computer art” still exist? People once used the term computer art to collectively name art that was created or showcased via computers. Yet traditional analog media such as photography, movie and animation intersect with computers more and more. At the same time, traditional media also use computers to produce, publish and showcase works. The two most traditional Western art media – painting and sculpture – are no longer excluded from the computer’s influence. Some sculptors use computer programmes to shape three dimensional art works before transforming them into real objects. In recent years, renowned painters such as David Hockney have begun to draw on a tablet PC, demonstrating how art can be produced in the era of tablet PCs and Smartphones. In recent years, many questions were raised on the topic of computer art works driven by programmes. The concerns are mainly in regards to the position of art’s originality and randomness within “smart generation”, and the boundaries surrounding artificial intelligence. In May 2013, Swedish artist Jonas Lund held a solo exhibition at a Rotterdam art gallery. He used computer programmes to analyse the data from many major art websites to create installations and paintings that were most favourable with what the art market wanted. Even the titles of his works were meaningless phrases, seemingly randomly improvised. Where was the work of art in Lund’s exhibition? Was it the derivative yet tangible installations and paintings, or was it the computer programme designed by the artist? Or both? Or neither? What is the essence of creation, artwork and artist, and are new definitions needed? They are the questions we must reflect upon in this age of computer art.

年份 Year ： 1967 年

發明者 Inven ted by： 934- 2005 ）羅伯特・穆格（Ro bert Moo g，1

er s i s e h Synt ★ 利用電子合成器，任意改變聲音吧。 ★ 音樂創作完全自由無界限！ red and to be alte d n u o s d n w music a sisers allo e th m any n y S ★ erated fro b li . ly d te e n le p refi an be com ositions c p m o c ic s s! ★ Mu boundarie restrictive

合成器：隨意改變聲音的魔術電子合成器的外型，常被人誤會為電子琴：薄薄的一個鍵盤，插上電源，在鍵盤上一彈，就有各式各樣奇怪的聲音。的確，現今的合成器和電子琴，外型上還真有點相似。但其實電子合成器不單是一件科技產品，它真正讓人成為聲音的製造者，為二十世紀後半葉的音樂帶來巨大轉變。人類早在十九世紀末，已開始嘗試製造出依賴電力產生聲音的樂器。二十世紀初，以電發聲的電子樂器，已經層出不窮，好些樂器還被古典音樂家用來譜曲。最著名的就有法國作曲家梅湘在他的交響曲中大量應用馬特諾音波琴。馬特諾音波琴既像鋼琴，又有一根弦線， 82

讓演奏者能像小提琴般滑奏，樂器還有不同的聲音選擇，效果相當特別。

馬特諾音波琴。

The instrument ondes Martenot .

電子合成器之所以比這些產生聲音的電子琴更具革命性，重點在於「合成」二字。產生聲音的方法，可以是從大自然或樂器中錄取聲音樣版而來，也可以是無中生有弄一個正弦聲波出來。但是，之後能把聲音改變，就是電子合成器的主要功能。 1967 年，穆格在蒙特利流行音樂節中，示範了他所設計的合成器，受到廣泛關注。他早於 1964 年便已在音響學會的會議中發表了關於模組電子合成器的論文，將產生聲音的過程，分成精細的部份，然後配合電晶體，透過電壓改變聲波的特質。由於聲音產生的各個部份都可仔細調校，聲音變得無限可能。當中的技術，可謂相當專門，但是你可以想像，本來生產出來的聲音，可以由「啊」變成「嗚」，可以由「嗚」的一個長音變成「嘟嘟嘟嘟」重複

穆格與電子合成器。

Robert Moog and his synthesiser.

的短音。這些全部都可以透過調校模組內的設定而將聲音改變。

Synthesisers: the magic behind other-worldly sounds The appearance of a synthesiser often gives people the impression that it is another standard electronic keyboard. Synthesisers also possess keyboards, though they are thinner and powered by electricity. Once a musician begins playing with the power on, a synthesiser’s keys are able to produce a wide variety of unusual or abstracted sounds. Despite their similar appearances, electronic keyboards and synthesisers are vastly different. Synthesisers are more akin to sound makers, and have instigated a tremendous change to the type of music created in the latter part of the 20th century. Ever since the late 19th century, scientists have tried to create musical sounds with electronic instruments. In the early 20th century, there were many electronic musical instruments. Some also had classical musicians writing compositions for them. A famous example was the French composer Olivier Messiaen’s symphony that made liberal use of the ondes Martenot . The ondes Martenot looked like a piano, but it was stringed so that performers could play it to sound like a violin; it offered different sound choices that produced special effects. But the synthesiser was more revolutionary than earlier experimental instruments precisely due to its ability to “synthesise”. It produced sounds using samplings from nature or from common musical instruments to imitate or fabricate sine sound waves without any known source material. The instrument could also alter the sounds that it produced; this feature became the synthesiser’s main attraction to intrepid musicians. In 1967, Robert Moog demonstrated his newly-designed synthesiser at the Monterey Pop Festival. It attracted widespread attention. He had already published his thesis paper at the Audio Engineering Society convention in 1964; its topic concerned an electronic modular synthesiser and the process that broke down the sound into finer parts. With the assistance of transistors, he could then control acoustic qualities through voltage adjustments. Since each part of the sound reproduced could be carefully adjusted, the instrument presented an infinite number of musical possibilities. Although the technique required specialised skills, it was a welcome challenge for many. The note “ah” could be altered to sound like “woo”, and it can be further changed from one long, extended “woo” to “toot, toot, toot, toot”, or a series of repeated short tones. The generated sounds are produced by setting the synthesiser’s internal sound tuning module.

3 為紀念穆格誕辰製作的 Doodle 版電子合成器。麻雀雖小，五臟俱全！大家不妨到其網址試試電子合成器的威力。

To commemorate the birth of Moog and present the Doodle version of the Moog synthesiser. It was small but perfectly formed! You may wish to visit the website to try out the power of this synthesiser.

http://www.google.com/doodles/ robert-moogs-78th-birthday

令音樂擺脫樂器的限制到現在為止，大家可能還是對電子合成器感到莫名奇妙。其實，Google 84

在 2012 年 5 月為了紀念穆格誕辰，在其首頁中放了一個模擬當年原始的穆格電子合成器。只要在網頁上扭動按扭，鍵盤彈出來的聲音就改變過來。穆格公司並推出了這個小遊戲的解說，一頁紙的圖解，上面還寫了一句：「實驗和學習，會令你獲得一生豐富的電子合成器經驗。」電子合成器的普及，令人完全地成為聲音的製造者。只要開動電子合成器，製造出來的聲音有著無窮無盡的可能性，也生產了我們現在熟悉的當代音樂。由搖滾到流行，disco 到 techno，總會找得着電子合成器的蹤跡。聲音有着千變萬化的可能，亦令創作的方式大為改變。不同傳統文化間的音樂，以樂器的運用反映獨特的音樂風格。樂器的限制，亦成了該音樂風格的特色：管弦樂團是十八世紀歐洲宮廷的產物；爪哇音樂奇怪的音階，來自那些不同音高的鐘；中國南北音樂不同，很大程度上也可以樂器區分。電子合成器的聲音，卻可以完全脫離於現實的樂器，沒有傳統的顧慮，也沒有傳統賦予的意義。這令我們的音樂更加國際性，也令我們要更花氣力去找尋什麼是「我們的聲音、我們的音樂」。

Freeing music from the limits of musical instruments Many may find synthesisers baffling and difficult to understand. To commemorate the birth of Moog in May 2012, Google posted a doodle simulation of the original Moog synthesiser on its home page. When viewers clicked the buttons on the page, the sounds produced by the keyboard changed. It was a simple demonstration of a synthesiser’s abilities and it captured the imagination of many search engine surfers. There was one page of illustrations from Moog Inc. with the short comment: “Experimentation and learning will reward you with a lifetime of rich synthesiser experiences”. The popularity of synthesisers enabled budding musicians to take control and become manufacturers of sounds. With a flick of the on/off switch, people can instantly create music with endless possibilities; it led to what is now known as contemporary music. The synthesiser’s voice can be found in every chart topping musical genre: rock, pop, disco and techno. The unlimited nature of sound creation has also led to changes in musical composition. Traditional music from different cultures used to reflect different styles due to unique and indigenous musical instruments. The limitations of each instrument became features of that culture’s musical style. Symphonic music was from 18th century European courts; Javanese music’s curious scales can be discerned from the bells of different pitches, and, to a large extent, music from northern and southern China could also be credited to the distinctive qualities of musical instruments that were available locally. But the music generated by synthesisers can be completely divorced from real musical instruments. There are no limitations placed on where instruments may derive from nor any implied traditions to follow. It makes contemporary music more international while challenging musicians to find “their voice, their music”.

Wal k man ★ 誰想到可以把音樂帶在身上呢？ ★ 隨時隨地隨心聽音樂。

nd? ed arou i r r a c uld be re. usic co anywhe m , t e a m h i t t y t ike, an though at we l d have h l t u o c i w s u ★ Who en to m ow list n n a c ★ We

年份 Year ： 1979 年

發明者 Inven ted by：索尼公司（SO NY）

Walkman：音樂流動化的革命早一陣子，在 YouTube 上流行着這樣一段影片：幾個六歲至十二歲的小孩，拿着一部 Walkman 不知所措，翻來覆去地去研究這部機器，上面還有不少按鈕。一個小孩驚訝地說：「噢，這是用來聽音樂呀！」它比智能手機只是厚一點，但感覺就笨重得多。「以前的人拿它來跑步？這麼重，真的跑得動？」其中一個小孩顯得很難理解。他口中「以前的人」，還不是什麼歷史人物，大概只不過是廿多年前的人而已。如果要為當代文化與娛樂劃一個分水嶺，毫無疑問 Walkman 的面世能被視為一重要界綫。現在我們在地鐵上看韓劇、在巴士上陶醉在自己的音樂空間、一邊在山上跑步一邊聽重金屬或巴羅克音樂，都是因為一場將音樂和影視流動化的革命。

Walkman: a mobile music revolution Recently, there was a popular video on YouTube. Children between the ages of 6 and 12 were given a Walkman. They were puzzled and studied the equipment over and over again, as they noticed there were multiple buttons on the clunky looking device. “Oh, this was used for listening to music!” one child exclaimed. They were amazed that it was thicker than a smartphone, and much more cumbersome. “Did people in the past use it when they exercised? It’s so heavy: you can’t run with it!” Some children could not imagine its practicality. The reference to “people in the past” was not to an ancient civilisation buried under sand or dust, but to people of their parents’ age. If there was a line drawn to indicate a milestone in contemporary culture and entertainment, the launch of Walkman was undoubtedly an important watershed. Today, we can watch South Korean melodramatic serials on the metro, or be absorbed in our own music while on buses, or we can listen to heavy metal or Baroque music when jogging in the hills. It is all thanks to a revolution that made music and videos portable.

在 Walkman 出現以前，世界上並不是完全沒有方便攜帶的音響器材。原子粒收音機自五十年代出現後，便發展出不少細小型號。卡式錄音帶在 1963 年面世，為直徑 12 英吋的黑膠唱片帶來一個更方便的音樂儲存媒體：但你總不能帶着黑膠唱片跑步吧？ 1978 年，索尼創辦人盛田昭夫和井深大，希望在公幹旅程間或跑步時也能聽音樂。酷愛古典音樂的盛田，着公司的工程師改製當時一部專為記者而設的手提卡式錄音機，以作娛樂之用。卡式錄音帶的出現，本來就是為方便錄音之用，將最重要的錄音功能去除，沒有人能想像這件跛腳產品有什麼人會買。但是，當盛田收到工程師的樣版後，認為錄音功能的確是應該捨棄：真正方便攜帶，音質優良的音樂播放機，將會有強大市場。盛田先為 Walkman 設定產品規格如大小、重量、用電、耳筒質量等， 90

然後着工程師們配合。這種產品設計的方法，幾乎是一反平常科技產品研發的思想：產品要能賣，就要先有新的功能和技術。當然，「Walkman」這個名字，也是精心挑選。配合一連串大型的市場推廣，這部機器成功帶來一個娛樂新潮流。後來的故事，不少人都相當熟悉：自 1979 年面世以來，世界各地售出的 Walkman 超過三億八千萬部。

第一代索尼 Walkman TPS-L2。

The TPS-L2 was Sony’s first generation Walkman.

索尼公司創辦人盛田昭夫與井深大。

Sony founders Akio Morita and Masaru Ibuka.

Before the Walkman, portable audio equipment was already available. Transistor radio was launched in the 1950s, and much smaller models were developed afterwards. Cassette tapes appeared in 1963, offering a more convenient storage medium than 12-inch vinyl records – one cannot really comfortably jog when carrying vinyl records and a turntable. In 1978, Sony’s founders Akio Morita and Masaru Ibuka hoped that while on business trips or jogging, they could listen to music. Morita loved classical music, so he instructed his engineers to redesign a cassette recorder, used specifically by reporters, to become a portable cassette player for entertainment. The cassette tape was originally meant to facilitate recording. When the recording function was removed, no one thought that this lame cassette player would have any market. But when Morita obtained a sample from his engineers, he was convinced that dropping the recording function was the right way to go. He felt that a strong potential international market existed for an easy-to-carry, excellent sound quality music player. Akio Morita set the initial product specifications for the Walkman such as its size, weight and earphone quality, and then the engineers designed a product to fit in. Such a method of product design was groundbreaking at that time as the traditional development of technological products dictated that products needed new features and innovations in order to sell. Naturally, the name “Walkman” was carefully chosen, too. Coupled with a series of large scale marketing campaigns, the equipment successfully ushered in a new entertainment trend. Its remarkable story is familiar to many people: since its launch in 1979, more than three hundred and eighty million Walkmans have been sold around the world.

Cassette Recorder

記者用的手提 Cas 卡式 repo sette re 錄音 rters cord 機 er u . sed by

Walkman

當初 Walkman 能夠帶領潮流，在於它革新了大眾聽音樂的方式。正如它初推出時，便大力宣傳其活力、自由的形象。

The Walkman was a trendsetter because it revolutionised the way we listen to music. At its launch, it vigorously promoted an image of vitality and freedom.

因著 Walkman 席捲全球，聽音樂再不受環境限制。邊跑步邊聽歌？沒問題！

Due to the Walkman’s worldwide popularity, listening to music was no longer restricted by the environment. Exercise while listening to music? No problem!

甚麼時候聽甚麼歌？自己話事！ Walkman 的普及，真正地為我們熟悉的現代生活揭開序幕。在 Walkman 普及以前，想在街上、路上聽音樂，只能聽收音機，聽甚麼歌得由電台主持決定。要有自己的選擇，聽自己喜愛的音樂，就只能安坐家中的沙發上，在大台機器中放唱片，大喇叭的聲響還會騷擾別人。 Walkman 突破時間與選擇限制的啟示，就是為人帶來真正私人的娛樂空間。甚麼是真正私人的空間？就是你想聽甚麼、看甚麼、甚麼時候聽、甚麼時候看，只要一個按鈕就能送上，不受他人影響，也不影響他人。後來鐳射唱片出現，音樂儲存數碼化，繼而互聯網出現，只是令音樂傳播的速度更快而已。真正改變了人如何享受音樂態度的轉捩點是 Walkman。 Walkman 也為現代的消費文化帶來新的啟示。七十年代的科技產品，強調技術上的創新。它的普及，說明即使新穎的功能亦未必能帶來如此龐大的改變。後來可攜式數位多媒體播放器的普及，重演了 Walkman 成功的故事：它沒有革命性的新技術，普及是由於它為用家著想的輕便與易用的特性，再加上產品領導潮流的形象。Walkman 推出市場之初，以年輕人踩着滾軸溜冰鞋聽音樂的廣告，已成為市場學中的經典案例。 Walkman 推廣的，正是自由自主享受的概念，亦正是你、我現在身處年代所追求的。

When and what to listen? It’s up to you! The Walkman’s popularity really kicked off the contemporary lifestyle that we enjoy today. Without the Walkman, people were stuck with listening to the radio if we wanted to enjoy music on the street or outdoors. The songs and programmes were decided by the disc jockey on shift when people tuned in. For the luxury of choice, people had to stay home to play their favourite record on a big machine. Yet high quality loudspeakers could disturb the neighbours, who may not share the same musical tastes. The Walkman was a breakthrough, it allowed everyone the choice of when and what to listen to. The device allowed for a truly private entertainment space: it meant that music fans could listen whatever they liked, at any time, just by pressing a button, without being affected by or affecting other people’s private space. Later on, CDs appeared, then digital music storage, followed by the Internet; all facilitated the faster dissemination of music. But the change in public attitude in how music can be enjoyed can all be traced back to the Walkman. The device also inspired contemporary consumer culture. Technology products in the 1970s emphasised technological innovations. But the Walkman’s popularity showed precisely that innovative features alone were unable to inspire huge changes in market habits. The popularity of the later portable digital media player repeated the Walkman’s success story. The player was not new technology when it was launched. Its popularity stems from being lightweight and easy, friendly consumer interface, combined with the smart branding that the product was a cool looking trendsetter. When the Walkman was launched, advertisements showed young people on roller skates listening to music - a classic example demonstrating insightful marketing techniques. The Walkman promoted the concept of increased freedom, and the world is still reaping those lifestyle benefits today.

Internet

年份 Yea r： 196 9-1 983 年

發明者 Inve nted by：集體發明 (Various Individu als)

★ 今天不可少的網絡，由一顆衞星觸發！ ★ 近距離看世界各地藝術品，不再遙不可及。 ★ 單向、雙向到多向的互聯網藝術。

ered by the Internet was trigg ★ The invention of a satellite! ser s anyone to take a clo ★ The Internet allow rks of art from around the look at priceless wo world. d two-way to multi★ From one-way an art. directional Internet

今天的互聯網原來源自冷戰！和歷史上許多重要發明一樣，互聯網並非由一個天才發明，它是大半個世紀之間許多人努力灌溉的成果。早在電腦出現之前，兩個不同地點之間的數據傳送就已經存在，十九世紀中期，人們已經可以通過電報系統作跨大西洋的即時通訊。早期的遠端電腦之間也可以傳輸檔案，但這種點對點的通訊，卻是局限於指定機器之間，可以說只是「線」的連繫，並無「網」的特質。我們今天使用的互聯網原是冷戰時代的產物。1957 年，蘇聯發射了「史普尼克一號」，成為第一顆進入地球軌道的人造衛星，不僅觸發了美蘇之間的太空競賽，亦直接促成美國國防部成立高等研究計劃署（ARPA）。互聯網的雛型「阿帕網」，正是 ARPA 倡導的研究計劃。 96

1962 年，互聯網先驅利克里德開始構想「銀河系網絡」：在未來的世界，個人電腦將多如銀河系的繁星，人們不論身在何處都可以通過電腦來溝通。同年，利克里德獲委任為 ARPA 轄下的信息處理處首席執行官，在他的推動和後繼者如羅拔斯的努力下，1969 年「阿帕網」正式開始運作，從最初的四節點網絡一直成長，雖然傳輸速度非常慢，但已具備網絡的基本形態，成為日後發展全球互聯網的技術核心。

1 「阿帕網」的邏輯圖，是今天互聯網的雛型。

A logic diagram for ARPAnet , which was the prototype for today’s Internet.

Today’s Internet was a direct outcome of the Cold War! As with many important inventions, the Internet was not invented by one person. Instead, it took the efforts of many brilliant individuals over the course of half a century. Long before computers, data transfer between two different locations already existed. In the mid-19th century, people delivered message through telegraphs across the Atlantic. Early computers, remote from each other, could also transfer files, but were limited to point-to-point communication between specific machines. One could say that these were linked by “lines”, yet there was no concept of “networks” at that time. Internet that we rely on today had its roots in the Cold War. In 1957, the Soviet Union launched Sputnik 1 ; it was the first satellite to orbit Earth. Sputnik 1 triggered a space race between Russia and the United States, and also directly led to the establishment of the U.S. Department of Defense’s Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA). A prototype of the Internet, called the ARPAnet , was a research programme initiated by the ARPA. In 1962, Internet pioneer Joseph C. R. Licklider conceived of an “intergalactic computer network” – a future in which personal computers throughout the world would be as numerous as the stars in the Milky Way. People would be able to communicate through computers no matter where they were. In the same year, Licklider was appointed as the chief for ARPA’s Information Processing Techniques Office (IPTO). Through his efforts and those of his successor, Larry Roberts, ARPAnet began operations in 1969 and rapidly evolved from an initial four-node network. Although the transmission speed was very slow, it already had the basic shape and form to become the core technology for the global Internet’s future development.

世界只有一步之遙人與人之間溝通的基礎是語言，我們平常使用的每一個字詞、每一種表達方式，背後是無數沒有明言的常規與慣例，正因如此溝通才成立。不管是人還是電腦，沒有了規則就如同巴別塔，即使電纜鋪得再好，卻沒有共建網絡的可能。阿帕網開始運作後，已易名 DARPA 的國防高等研究計劃署展開了數據傳輸技術的研究，當時阿帕網使用的「網絡控制通訊協定」（NCP）已弊端初現，NCP 的開發者之一瑟夫加入 DARPA，與卡恩一起開始研究下一代協定，很快就設計出 TCP/IP 協定模式，將資料封裝、傳輸、接收的形式統一標準，利用公用互聯網絡協定兼容網絡之間的差異，並改由主機而非網絡保證可靠性。1983 年，阿帕網宣布轉用 TCP/IP 協定模式，自此全球連線終可逐步實現。九十年代，互聯網在全球迅速普及，短短二十年間已顛覆了人的生活習慣、溝通方法、思考模式、知識結構以至感知習慣。在人人手上都 98

有一部智能手機的時代，網絡成為我們大腦的延伸，我們欠缺的知識、失落的回憶隨時可由搜尋引擎來補足。在觀賞藝術方面，則有大型資料庫項目如 Google Art Project 提供嶄新的可能：傳統藝術館因為保安問題，往往不容許參觀者過於靠近藝術品，但在 Google Art Project 上我們卻可以跨越地理上的距離，放大幾百年前的名畫，看最微細的筆觸，即使在世界最遙遠的角落，可以比真正站在畫前看得更清楚。除了革新觀賞體驗，因應互聯網而生的藝術也如雨後春筍般迅速成長。網絡世界極其廣闊，所謂互聯網藝術，並不是單一的媒介，作品可以透過網站、電郵、線上遊戲、互動影片、網絡表演（例如在 Second Life 之類的虛擬世界內）等方式呈現。

2 Google Art Project，把世界各地多個藝術館藏品的高質素照片上載至網絡，打破藝術的地域界限。

The Google Art Project in recent years provided online high-quality photos of museum art collections around the world, breaking art’s traditional geographical boundaries.

The world is only one step away People communicate with each other through language as the base upon which nuances is built. Behind every word and expression used, there are countless unspoken conventions; it is how succinct communication is achieved. For both human beings and computers, conventions are necessary; otherwise, it would be like the Tower of Babel – even with excellent connecting cables, it will not be possible to form a network. After ARPAnet became operational, the renamed DARPA (Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency) launched research efforts in transmission technology. The Network Control Protocol (NCP) used in ARPAnet started revealing its shortcomings. NCP’s issues resulted in Vinton Cerf, one of the inventors of NCP, joining DARPA . Together with Robert E. Kahn, the two designed the next-generation protocol. Soon, the TCP/IP protocol suite was developed which standardised data encapsulation, transmission, and reception formats. Such a public inter-network (Internet) protocol could hide differences among diverse networks and allowed host machines instead of network equipment to safeguard reliability. In 1983, ARPAnet announced its switch to TCP/IP. Gradually, a globally connected network became reality. In the 1990s, the Internet rapidly gained popularity on an international scale. Within two decades, it has subverted people’s living habits in the way we communicate and think, in how we structure knowledge, as well as in our styles of perception. In an era where everyone uses a Smartphone, the network became an extension of our brains. Search engines can source the knowledge that we lack or retrieve lost memories. In art, large database projects, such as the Google Art Project , offer new possibilities. Traditional art galleries often do not allow visitors to get too close to priceless works of art due to security concerns. By contrast, the Google Art Project allows viewers to zip across geographical distances, zoom in on paintings created centuries ago and assess fine brushstrokes. From the most remote corner of the world, viewers can scrutinise art more closely than when they actually stand in front of them. In addition to innovative viewing experiences, Internet derived works of art have emerged and multiplied exponentially. The World Wide Web is extremely broad, and “Internet art” is not just one single type of media. Creations can be presented simultaneously across multiple platforms such as websites, e-mails, online games, interactive videos, and online performances, such as in the virtual worlds of Second Life, for example.

打破界限的互聯網藝術「net.art」泛指以互聯網藝術為媒體的藝術家。1995 年，來自斯洛文尼亞的藝術家寇席克看到一封因傳輸錯誤變成亂碼的匿名電郵，當中他唯一能辨識的就是「net.art」這個詞組，他便以此名義招聚了一批創作網絡作品的藝術家。1997 是特別熱鬧的年份：邦廷在倫敦組織秘密的 net.art 會議；索爾法蘭克虛構二百多個女性藝術家，參加漢堡藝術館舉辦的「Extension」網絡藝術比賽，暴露了主辦方的性別偏見和對網絡藝術的無知；寇席克入侵了第十屆卡塞爾文獻展的網站；舒爾金在維也納做快閃行動《Real Cyberknowledge for Real People》，源於他看到互聯網的排斥性和非民主性。網上資訊不能傳達到需要這些資訊的人手上，因此他把網上資訊打印出來，走到街上派發給路人。這些例子顯示，早期的網絡藝術創作常以挪用、調侃與惡搞為策略，試圖利用科技挑戰傳統的藝術體制。 100

Web2.0 時代湧現互動式平台如 Facebook、Twitter、YouTube、Wikipedia 等，大量用家生產的內容成為無數藝術家的創作素材，如紐約藝術家 Penelope Umbrico 在 Flickr 上搜集日落的照片拼湊成大型作品，再以觀眾在作品前的留影進行「三次創作」；以拍攝香港高密度樓宇而聞名的德國藝術家米高・沃夫，在 Google 的街景上尋找怪異的情境，湊成《一連串不幸事件》。從唯讀式的 Web1.0 到今天的 Web3.0 時代，互聯網的資訊量與種類不斷膨漲，產生更多可供使用的素材，日後將繼續對藝術的原創性、觀賞經驗、生產方法、消費或使用模式帶來衝擊。

3 二次創作沒有創造力？ Penelope Umbrico 顯然不是這樣想。2006 年起，她利用網上搜尋得來的多幅日落照片，拼湊成另一件作品《Suns (From Sunsets) from Flickr》。

Is there no creativity in derived artwork? Penelope Umbrico clearly does not think so. From 2006, she searched for sunset photos online, and put together another new creation Suns (From Sunsets) from Flickr .

Internet Art breaks down boundaries “net.art” refers to a group of artists working in the medium of Internet art. In 1995, Vuk Cosic, an artist from Slovenia, received an anonymous e-mail that was completely incoherent due to transmission errors. He was only able to identify the phrase “net.art”. Under this banner, a group of creative network artists got together to jam. 1997 was a particularly busy year. Heath Bunting held a secret conference in London for net.art members. Cornelia Sollfrank concocted more than 200 fictionalised women artists who participated in Hamburg Art Museum’s Extension competition to expose the organisers’ gender bias and ignorance towards network art. Vuk Cosic hacked into the website of Documenta X . And Alexei Shulgin in Vienna staged a flash mob Real Cyber Knowledge for Real People to protest the exclusive and non-democratic nature of the Internet. Since online information cannot reach the people who needed it most, Shulgin printed out the information from the Internet and distributed it to passers-by on the street. These examples show how early network art was adept in employing misappropriation, ridicule and parody as strategies, using technology to challenge the traditional art system. In the Web 2.0 era, many interactive platforms surged such as Facebook, Twitter, YouTube, Wikipedia etc., where materials created by a large number of users became the contents to provide numerous artists with creative material. For example, New York artist Penelope Umbrico created a montage of sunset photos shared by users on Flickr into large-scale works, then re-composed the selfies taken by audiences to achieve “derivative artwork” of the third degree. German artist Michael Wolf, famed for shooting high-density buildings in Hong Kong, searched on Google’s Street View looking for weird situations, to make up his work A Series of Unfortunate Events . From the read-only type of Web 1.0 to the Web 3.0 of today, the volume and varieties of information on the Internet have continued to swell, resulting in more materials available for derived artwork. The future will continue to provide impacts on how we define originality, viewing experience, artistic production and consumption-usage modes.

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附錄 Excursus

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藝術是時代的產物；每一個時代，都有屬於

她的藝術。古往今來，藝術生產一直與生活緊緊相連，科技突破為藝術打開更多可能性，在我們身處的時代，藝術究竟是什麼？

Art is a product of the times; every period has its own art. Throughout the ages, art production had been closely connected with life, and breakthroughs in technology opened up more possibilities for art. In the era we live in, what is art?

查映嵐

倫敦大學學院 (UCL) 歴史學士及藝術史

碩士，現從事寫作、研究、策展等工作。

Evelyn Char

B.A. in History and M.A. in History of Art, University College London. Now engaged in writing, research and curatorial work.

機械 Machinery（P.20-27）、電腦 Computer（P.72-79）、互聯網 Internet（P.94-101）

105

幻變的舞台，

因不同的發明成為了不同的劇場；

更能因人不同的心靈幻化成不同的世界。 The magically transforming stage had become different theatres owing to various inventions. And since people have different minds, the stages turned into different worlds.

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張文禮

自小便在那令人懷念的後台跌跌碰碰；

現職香港演藝學院，繼續在各類場合跌跌碰碰。

近來對香港九七前的人和事特別有興趣，彷彿能為現今的一切找到蛛絲馬跡。

German Cheung

Who grew up stumbling and bumping in the memorable backstage; now working at the Hong Kong Academy for Performing Arts, but continuing to stumble and bump around in all sorts of situations. Recently focusing his interest on Hong Kong people and events around 1997, seemingly finding the clues there, for all events taking place today.

音響 Audio Electronics（P.28-33）、電燈 Light Bulb（P.42-49）、投影機 Projector（P.58-65）

小孩未出娘胎，還未有視力之前，耳朵已經勤勞工作。聲音讓孩子最先與世界聯繫。可是，這個世界

卻會變得愈來愈多采多姿，眼睛很快就把耳朵的靈

敏搶過來。生理上，小孩三四歲開始，視力的重要

性超越聽力。文化上，科技的進步，令視覺效果的

五花八門，也高速地超前聽覺。科技為音樂帶來的轉變，由人如何聆聽以至音樂的生產方式，都改變

得非常徹底。寫文章的時候，我只好不停地幻想以

前的人與我們的分別，絕不是件易事。

Children are busy with their hearing before they are born and use their eyes to see. Sound is the first medium for a person to know the world. However, the world would become more and more vivid, eyes would soon overtake the sensitivity of ears. Physiologically, from three years old, children’s vision plays a more important role than hearing. Culturally, the advance in technology created visual effects of many varieties, also much ahead than hearing. Technology brought about changes in music, in how people listen to music as well as how music is produced; these changes were very thorough. When I wrote the articles, I had to imagine how people in those old days were different from us, it was by no means easy.

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胡銘堯

活躍於以文字寫音樂，文章廣見於香港報章刊物，也是位電台節目監製和作曲家。

相信文字的盡頭就是音樂的開端，卻更相信先以文字為音樂鋪路，才更易讓人感受到音樂的震撼。他另一半分身是網站分析員，為大小網站作系統分析。活躍於網絡，主頁為 www.denniswu.com。 Dennis Wu

An active columnist on music in Hong Kong newspapers and publications. He is also a radio programme producer and a composer of music. He believes where words come to a stop is where music starts, and moreover he believes that words can pave the way for music and let people feel better the astonishment brought on by music. Half of his time is being a business analyst rendering service to various web sites and apps. He is active on the Internet; his homepage is www.denniswu.com.

留聲機 Phonograph（P.34-41）、電子合成器 Synthesiser（P.80-85）、 Walkman（P.86-93）

藝術，一如人類文化其他分支，隨時代不斷演變、推進。科技進步令人類文化隨之改變，然而科技出現本

源自人的需要。正如先有雞還是先有蛋的問題，發明與文化的關係就像兩個互相牽引的齒輪，缺一不可。

Art, as with other branches of human culture, evolved and advanced with the times. Technological progress brought changes to human culture; however, the appearance of technology stemmed from people's needs. So this is a “chicken or egg first” question: the relationship between invention and culture is like two gears, pulling each other and both are indispensable.

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梁安琦

畢業於城市大學創意媒體學院，主修

電影藝術，曾任《△志》（DeltaZhi）

及藝頻（Arts-News.net）編輯。認為埋頭發掘關於一件事物的前因後果是件幸福的事。

Angel Leung

Graduated from the School of Creative Media, City University of Hong Kong, majoring in Cinematic Arts. Served as the editor for DeltaZhi and Arts-News.net. She thinks that to be immersed in exploring the how’s and why’s of something is a happy thing.

菲林 Film（P.12-19）、活動電影機 Cinematograph（P.50-57）、電視機 Television（P.66-71）

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圖片鳴謝 Photo credit

p17

Pierre-Auguste Renoir - Luncheon of the Boating Party - Google Art Project by PierreAuguste Renoir - mgHsTKDNJVzPAg at Google Cultural Institute, zoom level maximum. Licensed under Public domain via Wikimedia Commons http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Pierre-Auguste_Renoir_-_Luncheon_of_the_ Boating_Party_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg#mediaviewer/File:Pierre-Auguste_Renoir_-_ Luncheon_of_the_Boating_Party_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg

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"Brillo Boxes, 1964" by Photographer: Andrew Russeth - Source: http://www.flickr.com/photos/sixteen-miles/4773197506/

p30

"UniversumUNAM47" by AlejandroLinaresGarcia - Own work. Licensed under Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 via Wikimedia Commons - http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:UniversumUNAM47.JPG#mediaviewer/ File:UniversumUNAM47.JPG

p56

"Lumière and Company FilmPoster" Licensed under Fair use of copyrighted material in the context of Lumière and Company via Wikipedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lumi%C3%A8re_and_Company_ FilmPoster.jpeg#mediaviewer/File:Lumi%C3%A8re_and_Company_FilmPoster.jpeg

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photographer: Richard Pilbrow - Source: http://projctn.com/sites/default/files/styles/project_thumbnail/public/ OneOverTheEight6_4web.jpg

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p64

Courtesy of Anarchy Dance Theatre / 安娜琪舞蹈劇場

p82

"ondes Martenot" by ja Licensed under Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 via Wikimedia Commons - http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ondes_martenot.jpg#mediaviewer/ File:Ondes_martenot.jpg

p82

"Bob Moog3" by Finnianhughes101 - Own work. Licensed under Public domain via Wikimedia Commons - http://commons.wikimedia. org/wiki/File:Bob_Moog3.jpg#mediaviewer/File:Bob_Moog3.jpg

p100

"Suns from Flickr by Penelope Umbrico" by http://www.penelopeumbrico.net/Suns/ Suns_nypf.html. Licensed under Fair use of copyrighted material in the context of Penelope Umbrico via Wikipedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Suns_from_Flickr_by_Penelope_Umbrico. jpeg#mediaviewer/File:Suns_from_Flickr_by_Penelope_Umbrico.jpeg

p100

"Suns from Flickr by Penelope Umbrico" - Source: http://www.penelopeumbrico.net/Suns/SunsImages/flickrsuns.jpg

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我們今天以為理所當然的藝術形式、表演方式，原來曾幾何時完全不是這樣子的！菲林、電燈、留聲機、電視機、電腦、Walkman 等等的發明，除了使人們生活變得更便

，也為不同的藝術形式帶來改變。

在電燈發明之前，上劇院的人必須

受煤氣燈高熱

；今天

我們有彩色電影可看，竟然要多得電視機；在 Walkman 面世以前，人們想隨身聽喜歡的音樂可謂天方古往今來，藝術不斷在個極富前

……

變。在「新視野藝術節 2014」帶來多

性作品的同時，不妨看看藝術如何一路走來，進化

成今天的樣子。也許你會發現，在這 12 件看起來平明背後，原來隱藏了不少在藝術世界中翻起

不過的發

天巨浪的故事。

What we take for granted today as a form of art or type of entertainment, was totally not like that a long time ago! Film, light bulb, phonograph, television, computer, Walkman and other such inventions not only made people’s lives more convenient but also brought about a change in art forms. Before light bulb was invented, theatre-goers had to endure the torment of hot gas lamps; today we have colour movies to watch, thanks to the invention of television; before Walkman became available, it was only in fairy tales that people could hear their favourite music while moving around... Throughout the ages, art has undergone many transformations. While the New Vision Arts Festival 2014 brings us highly innovative art works, we might as well take a look at how art evolved along the way, resulting in what it is today. Behind these 12 seemingly unremarkable inventions are lots of hidden stories which made monstrous waves in the art world.