Agroforestry Fact Sheets by Puerto Rico Sea Grant

AGROFORESTRY FACT SHEETS

Agroforestry A

groforestry is defined as a management practice which intentionally combines trees, shrubs, livestock, and grasses in a same location. Agroforestry also involves planting trees and shrubs in agricultural farms that have an inherent ecologic and economic value in order to optimize and diversify the soilâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s value. Likewise, agroforestry promotes a more diverse, healthy and reasonable land use. This practice has been employed since the beginning of farming and is perfect for controlling erosion, increasing crop yields, absorbing contaminants and protecting fauna. Agroforestry attempts to promote environmental sustainability, innovate crop production, natural resource management, and biodiversity conservation. All of this is accomplished through rehabilitating important ecological processes and factors such as flora and fauna diversity, and wildlife habitat. Through this, soil fertility is enhanced, carbon capture is made possible, hydrological processes are maintained and other ecologic goods such as soil quality are protected. Good agroforestry practices will enrich agricultural

production, protect natural resources, provide sources of income, and improve the environment for both humans and wildlife alike, since a barren landscape devoid of trees is not considered either visually or environmentally appealing.

Agroforestry practices There are diverse agroforestry practices. Here are some of these practices. Forest agriculture or silviculture Forest agriculture, better known as silviculture, consists of total forest management for the production of commercially valuable trees without affecting the ecosystem. This practice requires weeding, pruning mature trees, and cutting back or clearing the canopy to allow sunlight to reach growing trees. By harvesting or cutting down trees, large trees that suppose great economic value are removed. On the other hand, pruning or clearing trees eliminates trees that do not involve great economic value. The objective of this practice is to plant saplings and stimulate their growth while preserving biodiversity.

Silviculture also presents different environmental benefits such as water production, reducing carbon dioxide (CO2) levels and preserving biodiversity. Some samples of this kind of farming can be shade-grown coffee or cocoa, and mushroom farming. Windbreaker barriers Wind-breaking barriers are rows of trees in different heights that will make up a barrier perpendicular to prevailing wind direction. This is a practice meant to avoid air-driven erosion, since it would provide protection against the wind to crops and soil. This practice increases production since it attracts bees that aid in pollination, reduces temperature by creating microclimates, optimizes water use, protects animals, and helps conserve natural resources. The higher the trees comprising the barrier, the wider the area being protected and the wider the space until the next barrier needs to be placed. The species of trees or shrubs used to create the windbreaking barrier should be: adapted to the area, quick-growing, remain foliaged throughout the year, and should preferably be timber-producing trees, or trees of some economic value. Riparian forest buffers This practice involves planting a corridor of trees, shrubs and other plants near bodies of water like rivers and creeks. It has the goal of preserving water quality by trapping sediments and pollutants from the soil that could harm riparian ecosystems. It also contributes to erosion reduction and increased biodiversity on plants and animals.

rows of trees are known as alleyways. In this manner, the soil is used in different ways. The rows can be planted perpendicular to strong winds, along a contour, or adapted to the size of the machinery used in the farm. The crops can consist of fodder, medicinal plants or horticultural plants. Alley crops can provide yearly income while the trees grow and produce wood or fruit. Some tree species adequate for this kind of farming include native trees, which will eventually provide highquality wood, and fruit trees. Silvopasture The main objective of this practice is to improve livestock production by combining trees, livestock and fodder crops in the same terrain. This reduces the environmental impact caused by traditional production methods, since the trees help preserve soil moisture. It also lessens the need for irrigation and enhances the feedâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s quality. The trees provide shade and shelter to the animals. Trees with some kind of economic value should be selected, in order to obtain additional income. These could be fruit and/or timber-bearing trees. The crop distancing can vary according to the desired canopy density and the sunlight needs of the fodder plants below. Multistory cropping This practice aims to improve the beneficial relationship between species to minimize fertilizer use. It aids in the recirculation of nutrients among the plants, the organisms and the soil. In a multilevel cropping scenario, different species of tree, shrub, fodder plants and/or vegetables grow in the same terrain, using the varying heights as the main criterion when organizing the crops. Each row of trees should be distanced so that sunlight can reach the crops planted along the alleys.

The plants to be used should be flood-resistant and must be well-adapted to both soil and the environmental characteristics of the location (e.g. humidity, drought, and wind speed and direction). Plants with deep rooting systems are recommended The plants used should have economic and/or to assist in the absorption of chemicals, water and cultural value, and should be wind-resistant so they sediments into the soil. can avoid damaging the lower-leveled crops. In a similar manner, integrating species that improve Alley cropping the habitat for beneficial insects and pollinizers is For this conservation practice, crops are planted a biological control method that reduces the need between rows of trees. The spaces between the for pesticides. Examples of this kind of cropping

include shade-grown coffee or cocoa, integrated farming, or a combination of crops such as corn, bean and pumpkin.

Benefits of agroforestry Agroforestry attempts to favor the dynamic and natural processes in forest ecosystems to obtain better productions without altering their efficiency

Ecologic • Reduction in rain and wind-driven erosion • Environmental value restored within the ecosystem • Increased habitats for wildlife and endemic fauna • Resource protection, particularly of water • Protection of the physical and chemical properties in the soil • Increased biodiversity

and stability. Agroforestry attempts to plant crops that imitate natural patterns. This helps maintain flora and fauna biodiversity while improving the soil’s quality, and protects the entire ecosystem from atmospheric phenomena. The benefits afforded by agroforestry practices can be classified among ecologic, economic and social benefits.

Economic • Steady stream of income by diversifying crop productions • Lengthening of crop harvest season • Job creation • Increased economic return • Livestock feeding and fertilizer cost reduction • Incentives offered by different entities upon emplyoment of conservation practices

Social • Fresh food supply • Job creation • Community integration • Air quality improvement • Use of the spaces within the farm for recreational or ecotourism activities

Agroforestry and climate change Industrialization processes, the use of petroleumderived chemicals, the uncontrolled wood clearing, and inadequate agricultural production methods have made world climate present abrupt and unpredictable changes. Long drought periods, more intense rain, more frequent hurricanes, and higher temperatures are some of the consequences human activities are having on the climate.

Agroforestry is an alternative to climate change adaptation within farms which, at the same time, increases sustainability in the agricultural production systems. This practice attempts to create mature ecosystems which are more stable and can mitigate climate effects (e.g. extreme rain and drought events). These agricultural practices present different benefits that have direct results on the environment, such as:

• reforestation, • microclimate generation, • energy conservation, • bioenergy production, • contribution to carbon dioxide (CO2) sequestering, • erosion prevention and/or reduction, • air and water quality improvement, and • organic material availability in the soil, which helps eliminate the use of agrochemicals.

References

Boukhari, S. (1999). Bosques y clima: Intereses en juego. El Correo de UNESCO, 12, 10-13. Recovered from http://unesdoc.unesco.org/ images/0011/001182/118279s.pdf Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. (2007). Los bosques y el cambio climático [pdf]. Recovered from http://foris. fao.org/static/pdf/infonotes/infofaospanishlosbosquesyelcambioclimatico.pdf Gómez, W. (2011). Agroforestería y Cambio Climático: Sistema Agroforestal Quesungal [pdf]. Recovered from http://www.cesta-foe.org.sv/areas-de-trabajo/Pubs/ cuadernillo%20CESTA%20agroforestales.pdf

Centro Nacional de Agroforestería-USDA. (2001). Árboles Trabajando en Beneficio de la Agricultura [pdf]. Recovered from http:// digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent. cgi?article=1001&context=workingtrees

About this sheet This sheet is part of a series of informational fact sheets focused on agroforestry practices and their application in Puerto Rico and the United States Virgin Islands. The general purpose of this fact sheet is to provide a general education about which are the most used practices, provide a basic description, present their long and short term benefits, and explain how they help mitigate the effects from climate change.

Krishnamurthy, L. y Ávila, M. (1999). Agroforestería Básica. Programa de las Naciones Unidas para el Medio Ambiente. Serie Textos Básicos para la Formación Ambiental N 3, 23-26. Verchot, L. V., Van Noordwijk, M., Kandji, S., Tomich, T., Ong, C., Albrecht, A., Mackensen, J, Bantilan, C., Anupama, K. V. & Palm, C. (2007). Climate change: linking adaptation and mitigation through agroforestry. Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change, 12, 5-17. The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) is an equal opportunity provider, employer, and lender. This publication made possible through a grant from the USDA Forest Service.

Conservation buffer zones C

onservation buffer zones are strips of vegetation incorporated into a landscape with the intention of influencing ecologic processes and provide us with a variety of goods and services. The buffer zones filter sediments and impede their reaching nearby bodies of water and protect the soil from erosion, among other diverse functions. Their role is significant in the management and conservation of extensive natural areas. These must be located as close as possible to sources of pollution such as areas in which fertilizers, oils or pesticides have been used. They can also be placed near resources which must be protected, such as bodies of water. Conservation buffer zones serve multiple purposes simultaneously. In the majority of cases, these include: • Enhancing or protecting water quality Placing vegetation strips along rivers and creeks limits the sediments that reach the bodies of water, which then reduces the excess of minerals and nutrients that affect aquatic systems. Vegetation can help provide optimal temperature for aquatic wildlife. Using plants

that are hardy and tolerant of runoff and excessive nutrients, pollutants and sediments is recommended. • Protect biodiversity - Forest fragmentation limits the communication between different species of flora and fauna in a determined area. Buffer zones help reestablish connectivity and communication between ecosystems and species. These zones function as green infrastructure due to their capacity of overcoming climatic events. • Enhance soil productivity - Densely vegetated areas can increase the amount of organic material in the soil, which improves its physical and chemical properties. A system of trees established near agricultural lands increases water retention within the surrounding environment, an advantage to farmers. Practices such as contour planting, windbreak establishment and alley cropping help reduce erosion and create beneficial microclimates for crops and silvopasture. • Increase the economic value - Incorporating vegetation strips on a property increases its

value, since it enhances visual characteristics and recreational opportunities through ecofriendly trails. Market diversification is another viable option offered by buffer zones. Economically-important plants may be planted in these vegetation strips. The plants located near homes may provide energy savings applied to domestic cooling, as they offer a shade and wind effect. Eco-friendly trails can increase property value. • Protection, recreation and aesthetics Buffer zones may be used to protect houses or communities from forest fires and air pollutants such as herbicides or atmospheric industrial deposits. It is becoming increasingly common to use green areas or trails to interconnect spaces and create natural recreational areas. Likewise, buffer zones can improve a landscape’s appearance through the use of attractive trees and diverse plants.

Designs Buffer zones are designed with several purposes in mind, such as: reducing wind and water flow, trapping air particles and nutrients, and control erosion. Due to the multiplicity of purposes, it is important to keep in mind each region’s specific conditions and characteristics. Some of the most important aspects to consider include location, length, width, terrain incline and plants to be used, keeping in mind the zone’s main purpose. The areas in which buffer zones are established must be adjacent to agricultural areas or areas disturbed by construction projects, roads or by using the terrain as parking space. The height and width of these areas depend on the area’s topography (for more details about zoning buffer areas for conservation, please visit www. bufferguidelines.net).

To prepare buffer zones, one should select plants that require little care such as herbaceous or woody ones, preferably those that can be spread through root balls or branch cuttings. The chosen vegetation should be well-adapted to climate and soil conditions. Native plants should be used, to avoid the spreading of invasive species. Multilevel planting could provide different economic benefits to farmers by taking advantage of different levels in the crop canopy. In buffer zones established near bodies of water, plants should tolerate high nutrient and water levels. Windbreakers are a type of buffer zone. These are curtains, or lines, of grasses, shrubs, or differently-sized trees which form a barrier perpendicular to the predominant winds; that is to say, perpendicular to the direction from which the wind mostly blows. Windbreaks protect crops, livestock and/or grounds from winddriven erosion. Likewise, production will likely increase, since this type of barrier brings along different ecological benefits such as soil moisture, better crop production, warm winds filtration, and shelter for pollinizers. Depending on the terrain’s topography, the damping effect occurs at a distance of between 5 to 20 times the barrier’s height, so that in great tracts of land, it might be necessary to establish several windbreakers to aid in conservation. Each barrier should consist of one or more rows of vegetation in order to reach the density required to impede the passage of wind and reflect it away from the ground’s surface.

Benefits of conservation buffers The benefits of using conservation buffers are plentiful and varied, since they offer advantages to both biologic resources and the human population.

Social benefits • Provides source of income. • Improves air quality. • Enhances diversity and economic value. • Improves a landscape’s aesthetics. • Protects the core of the natural area from biologic changes. • Local citizens participate in the conservation of a protected area. • Increases job opportunities.

Conservation buffers and climate change Conservation buffers increase an agrosystem’s resistance to different climate events which are increasingly unpredictable. Through a simulation of a mature, natural ecosystem – in other words, that its vegetation has grown enough to successfully reduce water flow, control runoff and manage nutrients and pollutants – buffers help ease natural nutrients’ processes and cycles. The ecosystem’s capacity to maintain nutrient recycling in the soil should be managed as much as possible. For instance, buffer zones should receive maintenance after hurricanes, increased rain activity, fires, or changes related to construction purposes. The activities in the buffer zone have a positive effect on the soil’s physical structure and its capacity to control runoff, protect the soil from erosion, and improve water quality. Below are some of the benefits of these buffer zones: • Reduce erosion and runoff of both sediments and pollutants. • Retire or control pollutants in the runoff from wind and water. • Reduce flooding and erosion levels. • Improves the resource’s quality; it improves water quality by reducing the amount of

Biological benefits • Improves water quality. • Trees offer habitats for wildlife and pollinizers (e.g. birds, bees and bats). • Improves the habitats for nuisancespecies’ predators. • Increases biodiversity through the creation of natural corridors. • Provide more stable and fertile soils. • Improves terrestrial and aquatic habitats.

sediments and contaminants that reach major bodies of water. • Protect critical habitats. • Reduce the temperature in the areas in which they are located and create a microclimate favorable to the species in the surrounding environment. • Contribute to carbon capture.

References Bentrup, G. 2008. Conservation buffers: design guidelines for buffers, corridors, and greenways. Gen. Tech. Rep. SRS-109. Asheville, NC: Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research Station. 110 p.

Credits Drafting: Doris J. Rivera Santiago Editing: Cristina D. Olán Martínez English translation: Wilmarie Cruz Franceschi Revising: Edwin G. Más and Lillian Ramírez Durand Illustrations: Daniel Irizarri Oquendo, Cynthia L. Gotay Colón and Deifchiramary Tirado Choque Graphic arts and layout: Daniel Irizarri Oquendo USDA is an equal opportunity provider, employer, and lender. This publication made possible through a grant from the USDA Forest Service.

Conservation cover C

onservation covers are used on land that has been retired from agricultural production, farmland used for perennial fruit trees and shrubs, and recreational areas. Using vegetative conservation covers is a sustainable alternative for land protection. These covers offer aid in maintaining and enhancing the terrain’s physical attributes, such as the soil structure, porosity, and water-retention capacity. In this manner, the cover helps prevent compacting and erosion. Covers should be comprised of the permanent establishment of vegetation that can protect the soil. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), vegetative covers are part of what is known as “conservation agriculture”. This practice includes a series of techniques aimed at conserving, improving and making effective use of natural resources through the integrated management of soil, water and soil-based organisms. Rainfall drop impact fragments the exposed soil’s structure, degrading it, causing erosion and runoff loaded with sediments which can reach lakes, coasts, or other aquatic ecosystems. Water’s

erosional force can be negated by vegetative covers that arrest drop impact. Similarly, established vegetation reduced runoff speed and holds the terrain with its root systems, favoring water infiltration. Some examples of conservation covers can be seen in golf courses or lands in which hydroseeding techniques are used.

Designs Land may become unprotected for several reasons, such as forest fires, deforestation, over-grazing, landslides, and poor management. Vegetative covers can be established is several different ways and for different purposes; for example, as part of reforestation efforts or for agricultural development. This practice’s designs depend on the area that needs protection, the location’s annual precipitation, local topography, and available resources. This practice applies to every terrain that needs a vegetative cover. To ensure soil protection, the vegetative cover should be arboreal or gramineous (grass). The design of a vegetative cover should go hand-in-hand with a management plan which projects the process in phases. This plan should include several fundamental aspects

such as: location analysis and preparation, seed selection, vegetation establishment, and its maintenance. Each phase consists of a series of specific activities. Descriptions of these phases follow: Phase I. Soil preparation The area to be covered should be defined, prioritizing the most degraded areas or those most prone to erosion. During the space’s clearing, undesirable objects such as rocks, debris and scrub undergrowth should be removed. Then, the rows for planting should be defined. Rows that would grow along a slope are to be avoided. If the soil surface is hardened, some minimal tillage should be undertaken. This process would break up the superficial surface, allowing seedlings to become established and water to be better absorbed. Including compost or organic material to improve soil quality is beneficial. Phase II. Seed or vegetation selection The selected vegetation should be adapted to the location’s climate and soil. Seed quality is very important, since the cover’s development will in large part depend on how many seeds germinate and adapt to the terrain. Plants should be pestresistant, cover the terrain thoroughly, and feature a good root system. Many coverage vegetation types can be used, such as nitrogen sinking plants, plants that serve as pest repellents, and/or plants that improve and restore soil structure. Using diverse plant species and choosing plants native to the area is recommended. Native plants will easily reforest the desired area. The size of the plants selected is determined according to the zone and the intended purpose for which they are planted. In erosion-prone areas, crop and tillage residues can be used to provide adequate protection for the soil. Phase III. Vegetation establishment A vegetation implementation plan should be created. Permanent cover and trees should be established during the first planting period. The crop density is a crucially important, since it will determine the efficiency of the conservation cover. Providing irrigation whenever needed is recommended.

Phase IV. Maintenance Maintenance tasks can last anywhere between a few months to several years. It mostly involves weeding out undesirable plants, such as scrub and brush that would compete with the desired trees and other plant species for water and nutrients.

Benefits of conservation covers Conservation covers help stabilize the soil. This kind of cover protects the soil from rain drop impact, rainwater runoff, and soil loss. Other benefits afforded by vegetative covers include: • improved water infiltration and retention, • increased nutrient availability in the soil, • increased organic material in the soil, • scrub and brush control, • reduced plant diseases and pests, • improved soil conditions favoring seed and root development, • reduced soil compacting and layering, • increased humus formation, • reduced runoff and erosion damage, • improved habitat conditions for pollinizers and other wildlife, • development of microclimates conducive to seed germination and crop growth during the early stages, and • improved air, water and soil quality.

Conservation covers and climate change The ever-increasing demands for food for the burgeoning population has led to intensive exploitation of farmland, usually based around tractor mechanization and inadequate tillage. Soil erosion, compacting, increased salinity and acidity are the most serious problems related to poor land use, and it could bear a direct relationship with food shortages in the not-so-distant future. Climate change affects our environment by generating increasingly intense weather phenomena, such as droughts and flooding events. Land protected by conservation covers can help mitigate these effects with their attributes, which include:

• resilience to soil temperature changes, • reduction in soil nutrient loss, • carbon dioxide sequestering, • enhanced water, soil and air quality, • improved habitat for wildlife and microorganisms, • underground aquifer replenishment, and • reduced sediment charge to bodies of water and marine ecosystems.

References Falcucci, A., Maiorano, L. & Boitani, L. (2007). Changes in land-use/land-cover patterns in Italy and their implications for biodiversity conservation [pdf]. Landscape Ecology 22, 617-631. Faustino, J. (1985). Proyecto Regional de Manejo de Cuencas: Conservación de Suelos [pdf]. Centro Agronómico Tropical de Investigación y Enseñanza. Recovered from http://orton.catie.ac.cr/repdoc/A6722e/ A6722e.pdf Ovalle, C., González, M.I., Del Pozo, A. Hirzel, J. &Hernaiz, V. (2007). Cubiertas Vegetales en Producción Orgánica de Frambuesa: Efectos sobre el Contenido de Nutrientes del Suelo y en el Crecimiento y Producción de las Plantas [pdf]. Agricultura Técnica 67(3): 271-280. Recovered from http://www.scielo.cl/ pdf/agrtec/v67n3/at06.pdf

U.S. Natural Resources Conservation Service. (2010). National Conservation Practice Standard: Conservation Cover- Code 327 [pdf]. Recovered from http:// www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/ nrcs143_026014.pdf

Renard, K.G., Foster, G.A., Weesies, D.K. & Yoder, D.C. (1997). Predicting Soil Erosion by Water: A guide to conservation planning with the Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE) [pdf], United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Handbook N 703,404. The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) is an equal opportunity provider, employer, and lender. This publication made possible through a grant from the USDA Forest Service.

Contour farming C

ontour farming is one of the most simple and effective techniques for erosion control. It consists of planting farm rows perpendicular to the soil slope, following the contours on the land. This practice is recommended for every kind of farm product.

Designs There are several steps to follow in order to sketch and plant the rows along the contour. These include: • Evaluate the soil’s condition and identify the presence of obstacles that must be eliminated in order to sketch the contours. • Prepare the ridge, A-frame, or transit - These instruments will help trace the contour curves. • Measure the soil’s slope to determine planting distance, and to determine if other associated conservation practices should be implemented, such as vegetative barriers. • Trace the base line - This is a line that is traced across the farming area, and it serves as a point of reference when outlining the remaining contour lines. This line is traced from the highest

part of the terrain. To do this, place wooden stakes or flags, and take into account the distance between the planted crop. • Trace the contour - This is done using the ridge, A-frame, or transit. Tracing these contours begins at each of the stakes placed where the base line was drawn. • Correct the contours - These corrections are made moving the stakes outside the contour line. The corrections help make planting easier.

Benefits of contour farming This practice has economic, social and environmental benefits. Contour farming is one of the simplest and most effective ways to control erosion. Contour farming has multiple benefits, among them: • intercepting sediments, reducing erosion, and allowing better crop development and improving water infiltration, • favoring increased production due to enhanced water retention and soil nutrient assimilation, • promoting a reduction in sediment transport, • reducing runoff speed, and

• easing fertilizer and pesticide application, crop gathering and other agricultural practices.

About this sheet

This practice helps mitigate climate change impacts, since it promotes soil conservation and sustainable agriculture. Contour farming increases carbon sequestering and keeps large amounts of sediment from reaching local bodies of water, improving their quality.

This sheet is part of a series of informational fact sheets focused on agroforestry practices and their application in Puerto Rico and the United States Virgin Islands. The general purpose of this fact sheet is to provide a general education about which are the most used practices, provide a basic description, present their long and short term benefits, and explain how they help mitigate the effects from climate change.

References

Credits

Drafting: Doris J. Rivera Santiago Editing: Cristina D. Olán Martínez English translation: Wilmarie Cruz Franceschi Revising: Edwin G. Más and Lillian Ramírez Durand Illustrations: Daniel Irizarri Oquendo, Cynthia L. Gotay Colón and Deifchiramary Tirado Choque Graphic arts and layout: Daniel Irizarri Oquendo

Contour farming and climate change

Van Doren, C.A., Stauffer, R.S., & Kidder, E.H. (1951). Effects on contour farming on soil loss and runoff. Soil Science Society of America Journal, 15(C), 413-417. U.S. Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS). (2007). National Conservation Practice Standard: Contour Farming- Code 330 [pdf]. Recovered from http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_ DOCUMENTS/nrcs143_026017.pdf

The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) is an equal opportunity provider, employer, and lender. This publication made possible through a grant from the USDA Forest Service.

Critical area planting C

ritical area planting involves planting trees, shrubs, vines, grasses, or legumes in severely eroded soils or land devoid of vegetation. Its main purpose is soil stabilization and lessening the damages caused by stormwater runoff loaded with sediments or pollutants. This practice also serves to stabilize coastal areas such as sand dunes, and thus improve wildlife habitats and enhance aesthetics.

or substances that impede seed germination and inhibit their growth. These terrains are also characterized by a lack of permanent vegetation and tillage difficulty.

Designs

Critical areas should be addressed as quickly as possible. Grasses and legumes serve as longterm stabilizers and require little maintenance. This practice is applied in considerably Soil conditions should be evaluated to check for deteriorated areas. This deterioration can be caused nutrient deficiencies and the level of acidity or by accelerated erosion, the landslides and/or soil alkalinity. Most plants grow best in soil with a pH removal which occur after natural phenomena between 6.0 and 7.0. Frequently, organic materials (such as hurricanes and floods), or human activity such as compost and manure are added to the such as construction. When the terrain deteriorates, top soil or subsoil to improve the water retention the slope is exposed, and is prone to further capacity and increase nutrient availability. These crumbling. Through planting in the most critical organic materials release nutrients slowly, making areas, the terrain can be stabilized through the them long-term fertilizers. use of vegetation. In some cases, structural and bioengineering measures must be used as well. The When planting in critical areas, rocks and other level of soil disturbance and/or the hydrology of the selected area are factors to be considered in the materials that impede vegetation planting and settlement should be removed. However, care must restoration of these critical areas. be taken to not disturb the soil except in a minimal way. Critical area planting zones are located on slopes, poor in nutrients, with high rates of erosion and/

Sharply sloping terrain or inclines make soil preparation difficult. Mulching is recommended, to both avoid excessive erosion and to reduce seed loss. Hydroseeding techniques are recommended for this kind of situation, since it doesn’t require deep soil preparation and it facilitates the application of a solution that includes seeds.

References

Using a mix of plants or seeds is recommended in order to promote biodiversity and vegetal succession; that is to say, having a plant prepare the site for others. It is also recommended to plant both grasses and woody plants. The cover establishment should be focused on sediment control, so the species must initially be of quick and dense growth. Care must be taken when integrating aggressively-growing species. Invasive species should be avoided.

U.S. Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS). (2006). National Conservation Practice Standard: Critical Area Planting: Code 342 [pdf]. Recovered from http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_ DOCUMENTS/nrcs143_026475.pdf

Benefits of critical area planting This practice can be used in areas with high erosion or landslide rates, and acts to improve the environment. Some of the benefits of critical area planting include: • protects and enhances water quality by controlling and trapping sediments, nutrients, and other pollutants, • protects sand dunes, • protects areas in which vegetation is difficult to establish, whether it is because of the area or soil is difficult to till, and • provides protection and shelter for wildlife.

Salon, P.R. & Miller, C. F. (2012). A Guide to: Conservation Plantings on Critical Areas for the Northeast, [pdf]. Big Flats Plant Materials Center, Corning, NY. Recovered from http://www.nrcs.usda. gov/Internet/FSE_PLANTMATERIALS/publications/ nypmspu11417.pdf

Critical area planting and climate change This practice is generally established as part of a management system for conservation, focusing on soil, water, plants, animal and air resources. Critical area planting contributes to climate change mitigation since it: • helps sequester carbon and nitrogen, • protects delicate habitats, • increases organic material in the soil, and • favors the growth of vegetation that reduces vegetation and filters pollutants carried by stormwater runoff and wind. The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) is an equal opportunity provider, employer, and lender. This publication made possible through a grant from the USDA Forest Service.

Drainage water management T

his is an agricultural area practice in which surface and underground waters are managed in order to improve soil conditions for farming, water quality, plant growth and wildlife development. This practice may help improve crop yields, keep nutrients in the soil, and filter water before it reaches nearby bodies of water. Drainage management can also help shunt excess water from croplands. It is important that drainage management occurs without affecting local bodies of water’s phreatic levels or harming nearby wetlands.

Designs There are two kinds of commonly used drainage: surface and subsurface drainage. In both, the water is controlled through valves and structures that regulate flow. By regulating the opening and closing of the valves, pollutant transportation to other bodies of water can be avoided. Surface drainage Consists of open furrows that canalize the water flowing over the soil.

Subsurface drainage Consists of drainage tubes placed underground. There is much variation in the shapes and sizes of the structures used to regulate phreatic levels. These include floodgates, which can be manually or automatically operated to adjust the phreatic level on precise dates, as a response to rain patterns or depending on soil conditions. Several factors influence the design of the structures used to manage drainage, such as: soil drainage, maintenance costs, and management of soil destined for farming.

Benefits of drainage water management Drainage management in farmland poses several benefits. These include: • reducing nutrient and pesticide discharge, among other pollutants that could reach drainage systems and farm areas, • optimizing the conditions for farm productivity, • improving root development in plants through better oxygenation, and • protecting the bodies of water and improving their quality.

Drainage water management and climate change This practice can contribute to the minimization of climate change effects on farm systems. It offers opportunities for the increase water-use efficiency and reduce nitrogen loss—a key component in plant nutrition—through drainage systems. By managing drainage, we can: • reduce nitrate, nitrogen and phosphorus levels in bodies of water, since they can be great pollutants if allowed to reach high concentrations, • sequester carbon, and • avoid flooding events that could pose great loss of habitat and food for wildlife.

References Strock, J.S., Kleinman, P.J.A, King, K.W. and Delgado, J.A. (2010). Drainage water management for water quality protection [pdf]. Journal of soil and water conservation, 65, 131-136. Recovered from http:// naldc.nal.usda.gov/download/49248/PDF

U.S. Natural Resources Conservation Service. (2008). National Conservation Practice Standard: Drainage Water Management- Code 554 [pdf]. Recovered from http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_ DOCUMENTS/nrcs143_026409.pdf Williams, M.R., King, K.W. & Fausey, N.R. (2015). Drainage water management effects on tile discharge and water quality [pdf]. Agricultural Water Management, 148, 43-51. The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) is an equal opportunity provider, employer, and lender. This publication made possible through a grant from the USDA Forest Service.

Hydroseeding H

ydroseeding is used to prevent destabilization and erosion. It is a versatile practice that can be used in both flat and sloping terrain. It involves preparing a slurry mixed with seeds, vegetal material, fertilizers and a tackifier (adhesive). To employ the practice, a hydroseeding machine is needed to distribute the solution evenly. The solution is pressurized through a hose and sprayed on slopes or any exposed surfaces.

• fertilizers - these provide nutrients to the soil through either organic or inorganic inputs which would enhance sol fertility and improve the presence of nutrients for the plants.

Benefits of hydroseeding

One of the most beneficial impacts of hydroseeding is reforestation. Thanks to this practice and the way this practice is used, seeds and fertilizers are evenly distributed, and the The slurry used in hydroseeding helps retain vegetal covering ensures adequate conditions moisture; it also absorbs dew. The soil must be which foster fast plant growth. In comparison with dampened when performing this practice. other practices, hydroseeding offers the following additional benefits: There are several important factors to be considered • Vegetation is established faster than with any when performing hydroseeding. These include: other seeding techniques such as mechanical or • vegetation - this is the main component needed hand-sowing. for the practice to succeed, since it controls the • It allows the creation of vegetation coverage in erosion process and would function as a soil great elevations and hard-to-access slopes. conservation element. • It protects seeds from direct sunlight and extreme • soil type - the germination and vegetation temperatures, since the slurry contains protective consolidation is tied to the type of soil found on substances. the surface. • Labor costs are reduced. • seeds - native flora should be considered when choosing the species to be used.

Hydroseeding and climate change

About this sheet

Hydroseeding contributes to climate change effect mitigation, since: • the vegetation reduces the temperature, • erosion caused by rainwater runoff during intense rain events is reduced and, therefore, there is a reduction in the sediments reaching the bodies of water, and • it aids carbon sequestering.

References

Landis, T.D., Wilkinson, K.M., Steinfeld D.E., Riley S.A., & Fekaris, G.N.. (2005). Roadside revegetation of forest highways: New applications for native plants. Native Plants Journal, 6, 297-305. Sturm, P., Viquiera, R., Meyer, L., Vandiver, L., Medina, J., and Mas, E. (2012). Ridges to Reefs: Protectores de Cuencas/ NOAA RC: Hydroseeding Test Plots [pdf]. Recovered from the Natural Resources Conservation Services website: http://www.nrcs.usda. gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/nrcs141p2_037220. pdf

The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) is an equal opportunity provider, employer, and lender. This publication made possible through a grant from the USDA Forest Service.

Karst sinkhole management K

arst is a zone predominated by limestone. This kind of rock is easily dissolved, which makes it more vulnerable to erosive processes. When karst erodes, it creates sinkholes. The northern karst region of Puerto Rico is characterized by its hummocks, sinkholes, caverns, wellsprings, and underground rivers. In this area, there are also many livestock and farming waste management systems, particularly in areas close to the sinkholes. Because of this, establishing protection systems for the sinkholes and underground rivers is important.

Sinkhole management practices cannot be applied to areas eroded or collapsed because of faults or soil filtration problems. It also doesn’t apply to sinkholes which might appear on or under structures. Both the collapsed or eroded areas as well as those which are under structures are already covered. Because of this, sinkhole management practices cannot be applied.

Designs

If there are sinkholes or caverns in your land, you can establish a vegetative barrier to prevent excess influx of water runoff. This barrier will The sinkholes are created by the erosion of the also prevent pollutants from reaching underground soil or rocky material. Erosion provokes rockwater sources. By establishing vegetative barriers, falls and cave-ins on cavern ceilings. When this you will be contributing to quality improvement material collapses, a sinkhole remains. Karst and volume capacity enhancement of these bodies sinkhole management is used to reduce pollution of water, and increasing safety in your land. We on underground waters and to improve farm safety. offer a list of recommendations for preparing a Likewise, this practice may be used as a karst vegetative barrier and managing sinkholes: topography conservation system; that is to say, to • Avoid structures (such as drainage ditches, rain conserve the areas in which sinkholes, calcium gutters or pipes) that would divert the water from carbonate rocks and underground caverns can be its natural flow and into the sinkholes. found. • The size and shape of the necessary vegetative barrier depends on the soil’s slope and the

distance between the agricultural area and the sinkhole. These vegetative barriers filter and prevent sediments, nutrients and pollutants from reaching the sinkhole, as well as prevent people and livestock from reaching the sinkhole area. • Leave a wide natural barrier of trees and vegetation in the areas surrounding caves and sinkholes. • Do not throw trash, deceased animals or debris into or around sinkholes. This is illegal in most zones, as this garbage can quickly and directly impact mineral springs and wells. • Immediately after working the soil, it is recommended that the soil be fertilized and planted to control erosion.

Karst sinkhole management and climate change Pollution has degraded a large part of superficial and underground water. Reforestation as part of sinkhole management contributes to carbon trapping and moisture retention. Vegetation protects the karst, the caverns, the sinkholes and the underground bodies of water. This helps mitigate the effects of climate change and protects the karst, an essential zone which guarantees the safety of wildlife and humans alike.

References Departamento de Recursos Naturales y Ambientales. (2007). Hojas de Nuestro Ambiente: El Carso de Puerto Rico [P-012]. Recovered from http://drna.pr.gov/wpcontent/uploads/2015/04/El-carso-de-Puerto-Rico.pdf

Virginia Department of Conservation and Recreation, Natural Heritage Program (Friday, 21 June, 2013) Living on Karst A Reference Guide for Landowners in Limestone Regions [webpage] Recovered from http:// www.dcr.virginia.gov/natural_heritage/loksinkhole. shtml Zhou, W., & Beck, B. F. (2008). Management and mitigation of sinkholes on karst lands: An overview of practical applications. Environmental Geology, 55(4), 837-851.

U.S. Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS). (2006). National Conservation Practice Standard: Karst Sinkhole Treatment- Code 527 [pdf]. Recovered from http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_ DOCUMENTS/nrcs143_025714.pdf The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) is an equal opportunity provider, employer, and lender. This publication made possible through a grant from the USDA Forest Service..

Residue and tillage management T

his practice manages the amount, distribution and orientation of plant residues, on soil surfaces. This is an important agricultural practice that should be applied to crop systems. It consists of spreading out any plant residue with the intention of protecting the soil and crops from erosion. Residue management is used to protect soils from water runoff or wind-driven erosion and reincorporates organic materials which improves soil fertility, reduces production costs and helps carry out sustainable agriculture. There are several modalities of residue and tillage management. However, they all attempt to disturb the soil as little as possible, and spread the most cover from crop residues they can obtain.

Benefits of residue and tillage management Without appropriate soil-protecting measures, an otherwise productive system can be unbalanced. One of the most important benefits of residue and tillage management is the protection of the fertile topsoil on the ground’s surface. A homogeneous distribution of management practices has great

potential benefits in avoiding soil degradation, especially in tropical areas. The best option for this is conservation tillage. Some of its benefits include: • reduction of erosion by wind and water, • improve the presence of organic material and pH attenuation in the soil, • reduction of production costs, • production of food and protection sources for wildlife, • crop rotation (which reduces the risks of plant illnesses), and • use of machinery to till through thick residue layers.

Residue and tillage management and climate change Through the adaptation of good management practices, a long- and short-term sustainable crop production can be achieved that could satisfy the growing demands for food, while at the same time aiding in the reduction of greenhouse gases and maintaining and preserving soil quality. Good residue and tillage management practices:

• promote carbon (CO2) sequestration, • incorporate or fix nitrogen, • mantain and increase the soil’s moisture retention levels, • eliminate excess residues, since they deposit a plentiful and uniform cover on the soil, and • by incorporating residues ahead of time, the cycle of plant illness can be reduced or even broken.

References Mitchell, J.P., Singh, P.N., Wallender, W.W., Munk, D.S., Wroble, J.F., Horwath, W.R., Hogan, P., Roy, R. & Hanson, B.R. (2012). No Tillage and High-residue Practices Reduce Soil Water Evaporation. California Agriculture, 66 (2). 55-61. U.S. Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS). (2012). National Conservation Practice Standard: Residue and Tillage Management No Till/Strip Till/ Direct Seed- Code 329 [pdf]. Recovered from http:// efotg.sc.egov.usda.gov/references/public/AL/tg329.pdf

The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) is an equal opportunity provider, employer, and lender. This publication made possible through a grant from the USDA Forest Service.

Riparian forest buffer A riparian forest buffer is a land area near a body of water where trees and shrubs play an important role in enhancing and protecting water quality. These buffers are located near rivers, creeks, ponds, estuaries, lagoons, and areas with underground water sources. Riparian buffers provide food and shelter for wildlife, and provide shade, thus contributing to temperature reduction.

Designs Riparian buffer designs are divided into three different zones, detailed below. Zone 1 - This zone is adjacent to the body of waterâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s normal level. This zoneâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s dimensions can vary according to the terrainâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s slope. In this zone, allowing pre-existent trees or planting water-tolerating species (preferably native ones) is recommended. Land-clearing or crop-planting in this zone is not recommended. If planting, perennials are encouraged. Soil disturbances should be minimal in this zone. Zone 2 - This zone begins in the outer border of zone 1, on the opposite side of the water

bank (the slopes bordering the river). It extends perpendicularly from the body of water. The vegetation in this zone is similar to that in zone 1, and it is characterized for being a quick-growing forest comprised of native or introduced shrub species. Zone 3 - This zone begins on the outer borders of zone 2. The vegetation in this area is comprised of grasses and other plants that aid in sediment, nutrient and contaminant filtration. The trees planted in these zones should aid in minimizing erosion and trapping sediments and nutrients dissolved in the water. Once grown, the canopy created by these trees helps control the amount of rainwater reaching the ground, maintain a pleasant temperature, reduce the temperature in the bodies of water near it, and provides shelter for local wildlife. Plants chosen for riparian buffer zones should be flood-tolerant and be adapted to both the soil and to the environmental factors in the area. Deeprooted vegetation is recommended, as this would

ease the sinking of chemicals, water and sediments into the soil. Other factors to be considered when designing a riparian buffer are: the location, the height of the plant species selected, and their upkeep.

Benefits of riparian forest buffers Riparian forest buffers offer many benefits to ecosystems and farmlands. First, they trap sediments, nutrients, pesticides, and other materials which could affect water quality and harm the organisms which depend on the bodies of water. Likewise, riparian forests comprise habitats and can serve as ecological corridors. Vegetation areas added near bodies of water can eventually become protected zones for native species. The shade provided by the plants in the buffer zone can reduce the water’s temperature, increasing the habitat’s productivity and quality for the aquatic species. Finally, riparian forest buffers play a vitally important role in reducing soil erosion since they provide stabilization areas and help increase plant production. The less soil is eroded and lost, the more nutrients will be available to the plants which serve as food sources for humans and other organisms.

Riparian forest buffers and climate change Riparian forest buffers play an important role in climate change adaptation and the mitigation of its effects. The vegetation in these forests contributes to gas capture, particularly of carbon. In strong rain events, these forests help reduce runoff-caused erosion. The tree’s shade reduces water temperature and enhances the habitats for species which may thrive in cooler temperatures. Also, having trees near the bodies of water allows leaves, twigs, and branches to fall into these aquatic systems, improving them for the organisms living therein. The aquatic life in the bodies of water benefit from the leaf litter and the wood debris, which can serve as protection and food source.

References Lynch, L., & Tjaden, R. (2001). When a Landowner Adopts a Riparian Buffer - Costs and Benefits. Fact Sheet 774 [pdf]. Recovered from Maryland Cooperative Extension https://extension.umd.edu/sites/ default/files/_docs/programs/riparianbuffers/FS774.pdf Scatena, F.N. (1990). Selection of Riparian Buffer Zones in Humid Tropical Steep lands [pdf]. Institute of Tropical Forestry, Río Piedras Puerto Rico. Recovered from http://hydrologie.org/redbooks/a192/ iahs_192_0328.pdf U.S. Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS). (2010). National Conservation Practice Standard: Riparian Forest Buffer-Code 391 [pdf]. Recovered from http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_ DOCUMENTS/nrcs143_026098.pdf Young, R.A., T. Huntrods, and W. Anderson. (1980). Effectiveness of riparian buffer strips in controlling pollution from feedlot runoff. Journal of Environmental Quality, 9, 483-487.

The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) is an equal opportunity provider, employer, and lender. This publication made possible through a grant from the USDA Forest Service.

Sediment basin A sediment basin is a pond or embankment (or a combination of the two) that features a water and sediment entrapment area, a spillway structure which allows both controlled or continuous flow, and an auxiliary spillway. The sediment basin is designed to trap and retain a wide range of sediment particulate sizes so that the concentration of heavy sediments and turbidity levels present in the discharged runoff are reduced. This type of temporary or permanent pond is usually found in construction areas and is intended to capture eroded soil washed away by runoff. It is designed to protect nearby areas from excess sedimentation, as well as to protect the water quality in rivers, wetlands and creeks near the basin.

Design

• They must be located near a concentrated flow of water. • Sediment traps should be used above the sediment basins so they can capture larger sediment particles. • It is important to inspect the area in order to determine the size and location for the basins. • The soil’s type and permeability must be determined. The size of the sediment basin depends on the soil’s permeability – if the soil has little permeability, the basin must be larger. For instance, if the soil features clay, the basin might need to be bigger than usual, since this type of soil is not very permeable. • Erosion control must be the main focus. • A sediment basin should never be built in bodies of water or wetlands. • Planting vegetation around the perimeter of the basin is recommended to protect it from erosion.

The size, location and soil type are important factors to be considered when designing a sediment basin. Below are a series of steps to take in order to Benefits of sediment basins achieve an efficient sediment basin design: Sediment basins are usually two-fold: first, to • Sediment basins must be designed specifically quickly collect sand particles and larger sediment for each individual application.

particles; and second, to impede large amounts of polluted runoff. With these two main functions, various benefits can be obtained: • protection of zones adjacent to bodies of water from obstruction or damages due to sediment deposits generated during construction activities, • trapping smaller-sized sediment particles such as silt and clay, and • better efficiency when used along with other agricultural practices such as vegetative barriers and filtering strips.

Sediment basins and climate change Sediment basins are installed to protect natural resources (e.g. wetlands), farms, crops and property in areas that could be affected by runoff with excess sedimentation. They also help control contaminants from runoff, improve water quality by reducing sedimentation, reduce erosion levels, and prevent sediments from reaching marine environments. When we improve water quality, we help reduce the turbidity affecting the photosynthesis processes necessary for sea grass meadow and coral reef health. Marine ecosystems have been affected by increasing ocean temperatures. This increased temperature is a consequence of global warming. The absence of these vital ecosystems would involve losing photosynthetic organisms which help capture carbon dioxide. The application of better farming practices contributes to the mitigation of climate change effects in marine ecosystems and helps protect the environment.

References U.S. Natural Resources Conservation Service. (2010). National Conservation Practice Standard: Sediment Basin-Code 350 [pdf]. Recuperado de http:// www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/ nrcs143_025942.pdf

USDA is an equal opportunity provider, employer, and lender. This publication made possible through a grant from the USDA Forest Service.

Shade grown coffee C

offee is a plant from the Coffea genus, originally from Ethiopia, Africa. This plant is cultivated in tropical and subtropical areas throughout the world. It was introduced to Puerto Rico in 1736, and it was one of the most commercially prized plants in the early XIX century. The main coffee-growing area in Puerto Rico is mostly based around the cool mountain areas in the Central Range, heading towards the central-west region of the island. Shade grown coffee practices are defined as the mixed placement of trees and coffee shrubs so that a secondary forest is formed, providing ecological, climate, social and economic benefits. This practice generates employment and monetary opportunities while at the same time preserving wildlife and protecting biodiversity. It works as a sustainable care practice in those areas using it. Currently, shade grown coffee practices have resurfaced after a period in which wood clearing for agriculture was more widely promoted.

Shade grown coffee practices There are two ways to farm shade grown coffee; it could be under provisional or temporary shade, or it could be under permanent shade. They are described further ahead: Provisional or temporary shade Juvenile coffee shrub root systems are very sensitive to high soil temperatures. It is therefore beneficial to provide temporary shade until the appropriate conditions for its development are met. This technique is used when a coffee farm is first planted, or when the permanent plant, that is to say, the plant formerly located in the farmland, has been eliminated. In recently cleared land, some temporary shade is recommended to protect young coffee plants. To provide temporary shade, quick-growing plants should be used, which can provide shade while the permanent species grows and develops. Some of the most commonly used plants for this purpose are featured in the following table:

Common name Pigeon pea Sunn hemp Plantain Banana

Scientific name Cajanus cajan Crotalaria juncea Musa paradisiaca Musa acuminata

Temporary shade helps control brush growth during the beginning stages of the coffee plants. This type of shade is an important source of organic material which, after its shade-providing function can be cut down and serve as ground cover. Ground cover prevents erosion, provides nutrients, reduces soil temperatures, and maintains moisture. Permanent shade This is the shade that will remain through the coffee plantation’s existence. Permanent shade trees should preferably be trees in the legume family (which aids in nitrogen fixation), serve as food and shelter for wildlife, have an umbrellashaped canopy, and respond favorably to pruning, so that the canopy density can be increased. Some of the most commonly used trees for this include: Common name Ice cream bean Quickstick Coral tree

Scientific name Inga vera Gliricidia sepium Erythrina berteroana

Designs There are two types of design used to practice shade growing coffee; these are temporary or permanent shade. When undertaking these designs, several parameters should be considered; among them: the trees which will be used, the distance between the trees and their management, the property’s orientation in respect to the sun, wind direction, and altitude. Before planting the trees, several key factors should be considered, such as tree canopy width, leaf size, the spacing between branches (as it pertains to sunlight penetration), the root system, and the tree’s height. The planted trees should:

• be tolerant to wind and pests, • be adapted to the area’s climate and soil, • preferably be nitrogen sinks, • possess a strong and deep root system, • respond well to pruning, and not feature thorns, • grow quickly, • be trees with high economy value, and • feature enough separation between the branches so that light can penetrate. The property’s orientation in respect to the sun must be taken into consideration when deciding the desired shade density. Excess shade can cause excessive moisture, which would in turn cause diseases to the coffee shrubs. If the coffee plantation is oriented towards the east or southeast, it will require more shade. On the other hand, if it is oriented towards the west, north, or northwest, the demand for shade would be lessened. The trees would also protect the coffee shrubs from winds, so wind direction should also be considered. Temporary shade design The most commonly used plants for temporary shade include the pigeon pea, brown hemp, plantain and banana. When planting these, keep short distances between the plants so that they can quickly cover and protect the planted area. The pigeon pea’s and sunn hemp’s shape allows good sunlight penetration to the coffee shrubs. These can be planted every one or two coffee rows so as to obtain moderate density. Pigeon peas and sunn hemp should be discarded after a year, while the plantain would be discarded after the second harvest. The residues from the discarded plants used for temporary shade should be distributed along the terrain to add organic material and return vital biomass to the soil. Permanent shade design Shade in a coffee plantation should not exceed 30%, since coffee grows and fruits well in these conditions. In a Spanish acre of land, 30% means approximately 30 trees depending on size and cannopy. A triangle-shaped arrangement for the trees is recommended to obtain better uniformity in shade distribution.

The following table indicates the distance at which trees should be planted in regards to the estimated shade:

insects, reptiles, birds and some mammals, to live in the general area. Preserving this biodiversity can provide ecologic benefits to farmers, for instance, in the form of biological pest control. Shade trees regulate the coffee plantation’s temperature and Planting Distance Shade Percentage (feet and meters) provide organic material in the soil. At the same time, they recycle the nutrients from the deeper 20 46 feet (14 m) parts of the soil up to the surface. To summarize, 25 41 feet (12.5m) shade grown coffee contributes to: 30 37 feet (11.3m) • letting the coffee berries mature at a slower rate, • regulate plant photosynthesis and respiration. Shade grown coffee management • reduce crop transpiration. • improve plant longevity. Good shade management is very important to • improve rainwater infiltration into the soil. a coffee farm, since poor administration can • reduce fruit drop caused by rainfall. create difficulties for production. It is highly • produce heavier, larger, and better quality grains. recommended that trees get pruned regularly • reduce fertilizer and herbicide costs. and/or get discarded as they grow old in order to replace them with new trees, so that variously-aged • create ecological corridors. trees grow and replace older ones. Pruning should Pest and disease susceptibility in shade grown occur shortly after harvest. It is recommended at coffee has been researched. It was found that this time since it would allow more sunlight to reach the coffee shrubs during their flowering. The the use of shade was not significant to the development of the coffee leaf miner moth tree canopies should be high up and shaped like (Leucoptera coffeella), one of coffee’s worst pests. an umbrella, with several secondary and tertiary However, there was a reduction in the incidence of branches. Distance between tree foliage and leaf spot (Cercospora coffeicola). coffee shrubs should not exceed 20 feet, nor be shorter than 6 feet; this allows better lighting and ventilation for the coffee shrubs. If the shade is Shade grown coffee and climate change too dense, it can favor the development of diseases Sudden and drastic climate changes manifest such as black rot (Pellicularia koleroga) and leaf in low production, performance, and product spot (Mycena citricolor). Shade should not be quality. As a consequence, product shortages, drastically cut back, as it may negatively impact supply reduction and a possible price increase the coffee shrubs with low soil humidity, excessive may occur. The climate changes occurring at a ventilation, or high soil temperatures. The shade global scale harm agricultural crops, and coffee is would create secondary forest conditions, which, no exception. Shade grown coffee contributes to if properly managed, would increase the coffee climate change adaptation as it: plantation’s productivity. • traps and sequesters atmospheric carbon and nitrogen, enriching the soils, Benefits of shade grown coffee • creates microclimates that favor flora and fauna, • preserves soil moisture and biota, Shade grown coffee directly provides economic • creates buffer zones around natural areas, and ecologic benefits and contributes to diversity conservation in both the coffee shrubs and the soils • prevents soil erosion, increasing its fertility, • creates a protective leaf litter cover for the soil, it inhabits. This practice promotes a variety of • provides shade, which reduces soil warming, and crops in a same plot of land. Studies about shade reduces wind effect on the crops, and grown coffee both within and outside of Puerto • protects crops from hurricane or tropical storm Rico has shown that it increases biodiversity damages. on the area, allowing for more animals, such as

References

About this sheet

Borkhataria, R., Collazo, J.A., Groom, M.J., JordanGarcia, A., 2012. Shade-grown coffee in Puerto Rico: opportunities to preserve biodiversity while reinvigorating a struggling agricultural commodity. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment Vol.149 pg. 164-170.

Marrero, J. 1954. Especies del género Inga usadas como sombra de café en Puerto Rico. Carib. For., Vol. 15 pg. 54-71. Rice, R. 2010. The ecological benefits of shade-grown coffee: the case for going Bird-friendly. Smithsonian Migratory Bird Center. Solórzano, N., and Querales, D., 2010. Crecimiento y desarrollo del café (Coffea arábica) bajo la sombra de cinco especies arbóreas Revista Forestal Latinoamericana, Vol. 25 pg. 61-80.

Vicente-Chandler, J., Abruña, F., Silva, S., 1984. Experimentación y su Aplicación al Cultivo Intensivo del Café en Puerto Rico. Estación Experimental Agrícola de la Universidad de Puerto Rico. Boletín 273. pg. 13-15. Wellman, F.L., 1960. Recomendaciones para mejorar el cultivo del café en Puerto Rico. Estación Experimental Agrícola de la Universidad de Puerto Rico. Boletín 153. pg. 50-62. The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) is an equal opportunity provider, employer, and lender. This publication made possible through a grant from the USDA Forest Service.

Silviculture This is a branch of agroforestry that is in charge of the activities related to the use and regeneration of forests. Silviculture studies the usage, maintenance, growth, composition, and quality of forests and their ecologic, scientific, economic and social benefits. It is concerned with planting trees and producing wood as raw material. It is also dedicated to the study of natural and artificial methods of rehabilitating and optimizing forested areas so as to fulfill the ecological and market needs by applying studies to the rational use of the forests. Through silviculture, we can obtain a variety of products and services. Silviculture would also provide ways of direct and indirect production, explained below: Direct production Through silviculture, we obtain wood, useful for construction and for raw materials such as lumber, cork, and resin. Indirect production Silviculture aids in carbon sequestering, preservation of the hydrologic cycle, and biodiversity conservation, among others.

Designs

Silviculture system designs depend on the climate and topographic conditions as well as soil composition in relation to the forest plants. In general terms, maintenance goals are determined and an efficient plan is developed that will not affect the forestâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s outcome in a negative way. It is important to perform a forest inventory to identify sensitive areas, endangered species, and other available resources that need special attention. This plan must include criteria for tree pruning and harvest, the preferred species, and a method for replanting the forest with young trees and thus maintain a balanced forestation and harvest. Not only the current and future market for obtaining economic benefit should be considered. The forestâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s capacity to maintain a forestry production depends on its ecologic processes, natural disturbances (e.g. winds, hurricanes, pests, droughts, floods) and human-made disturbances (fires provoked by humans), and the type of management employed, which should optimize these processes. Pruning is recommended, since

it allows more light to reach the saplings below, allowing them to produce sooner and aid in carbon sequestering. When designing a forest system, it’s important to consider the species that could fulfil production needs. Trees must be of diverse species and ages. It is also important to thin the trees; that is to say, eliminating undesirable plants to free up space for the species that will fulfil the direct and indirect production needs at the highest quality possible. Silviculture provides options to diversify products and benefits from silviculture practices. When selecting the plants, please bear in mind the following considerations: • adaptations to climate and soil conditions, • economic and/or cultural characteristics (e.g. planting trees whose fruit is consumed by inhabitants in the location in which silviculture will be practiced), • quick spread, • regeneration rates, and • biodiversity maintenance.

Benefits of silviculture Silviculture systems are designed to foster environment and forest preservation through programmed maintenance of tree harvests and other forest resource usage, such as fruit and shade for wildlife. Some of the benefits offered by silviculture include: • increase in water quality, • reforestation in bare areas, • wood production for industrial purposes, • production of cork, honey, pulp, fiber, among other materials, • creation of windbreaks that aid in controlling wind erosion, • guarantees public’s delight in visiting forests, • natural corridor creation, • little need for maintenance, • natural resistance to pests and diseases, and • increased biodiversity.

Silviculture and climate change Earth’s climate is in constant change because of anthropogenic and non-anthropogenic causes. The effects of climate change and global warming can be mitigated through the application of silviculture practices. These practices can help mitigate climate change impacts through: • increasing carbon and nitrogen sequestering, • promoting climate study, • regulating local and global climate (microclimates), • reducing greenhouse gases, • possessing the ability to produce biomass, • conserves and protects watersheds, and • promotes grass growth that feed livestock.

References Anderson, P. and Palik, B. (2011). Silviculture for Climate Change. Recovered from U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Climate Change Resource Center http://www.fs.usda.gov/ccrc/topics/silviculture Clason, T.R. & S.H. Sharrow. (2000). Silvopastoral practices. Ch. 5 in North American Agroforestry: An Integrated Science and Practice. American Society of Agronomy, Madison, WI. Food and Agricultural Organization. (2002). Evaluación de los recursos forestales mundiales 2000 (Informe principal) [online]. Recovered from the Food and Agriculture Organization repository (FAO): http:// www.fao.org/docrep/005/y1997s/y1997s00.htm

Credits Drafting: Doris J. Rivera Santiago Editing: Cristina D. Olán Martínez English translation: Wilmarie Cruz Franceschi Revising: Edwin G. Más and Lillian Ramírez Durand Illustrations: Daniel Irizarri Oquendo, Cynthia L. Gotay Colón and Deifchiramary Tirado Choque Graphic arts and layout: Daniel Irizarri Oquendo The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) is an equal opportunity provider, employer, and lender. This publication made possible through a grant from the USDA Forest Service.

Stormwater runoff control S

tormwater runoff is rainwater that accumulates and flows across the soilâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s surface. Usually, runoff occurs when the soil is saturated and can no longer absorb. Water accumulates on the surface and flows as a stream. This stream can drag along pollutants, nutrients and sediments from urban or farm activities. Performing agricultural or urban development activities can cause erosion. The sediment produced by the soilâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s erosion is dragged by runoff. Excessive sediments and nutrients such as pollutants are harmful to water quality. The sediments accumulate in the water column and do not allow enough sunlight to enter so that photosynthetic organisms such as seagrasses can perform their vital processes. Excess nutrients cause uncontrolled growth in algae, which also impedes entrance of sunlight. Controlling stormwater runoff is of vital importance to optimize water quality.

Designs Measures to control stormwater runoff are usually installed in public spaces, considering how the

spaces are used and how they will look afterwards. The measures are placed in locations in which runoff could degrade the quality in bodies of water. There are several designs meant to control runoff, among which we could find the following: Cisterns This is a system which collects and stores rainwater from a rooftop that could otherwise become runoff. Rain gardens These are gardens with a relatively flat capture area in which deep-rooted plants and grasses are planted. The garden must be planted in an area prone to runoff. This could be in houses, agricultural zones, or commercial locations. Sediments, nutrients and potential pollutants are deposited into the capture area provided by the garden. This limits the amount of harmful substances reaching the drainage systems and later on, local bodies of water. Vegetative filter Vegetative filters are strategically installed rows of

vegetation which protect water quality, since they reduce the amount of sediments, organic matter and pesticides that could reach nearby bodies of water.

Benefits of stormwater runoff control Stormwater runoff control techniques can provide the following benefits: • Prevent flooding, since they increase the soil’s absorption rate and therefore, reduce water flow. • Protect streams and rivers, among other bodies of water, from pollutants dragged by runoff, such as fertilizers, oils, and fluids from vehicles and paved areas. • Offer refuge for birds, butterflies, bees, and other beneficial insects. • Serve as biological corridors or connectors.

Stormwater runoff control and climate change Because of climate change, storms and rainfall events are happening at an increased intensity and frequency than before. These events increase runoff, flooding and erosion. Good management practices help reduce rainfall runoff, erosion, and effects from sedimentation. In this manner, these practices help improve water quality.

References Bannerman, R., Considine, E. y Horwatich, J. (2003). Rain Gardens: A How-to Manual for Homeowners. Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources Publication. Recovered from http://dnr.wi.gov/topic/ shorelandzoning/documents/rgmanual.pdf

United States Environmental Protection Agency. (2009). What is a Rain Barrel? [pdf] Recovered from Environmental Assessment and Innovation Division EPA Region3, Philadelphia, PA http://stormwater. allianceforthebay.org/wp-content/uploads/dlm_ uploads/2013/07/what-is-rainbarrel.pdf U.S. Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS). (2010). National Conservation Practice Standard: Stormwater Runoff Control-Code 570 [doc]. Recovered from www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/ nrcs143_026392.docx

González, C. (s.f.). Lección: Manejo de la escorrentía y control de la erosión en la finca. Guía curricular: El cambio climático, impacto sobre la producción agrícola y prácticas de adaptación [pdf]. Recovered from http://academic.uprm.edu/gonzalezc/ HTMLobj-905/ccerosionymanejoescorrentiaescrito.pdf The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) is an equal opportunity provider, employer, and lender. This publication made possible through a grant from the USDA Forest Service.

Wetland restoration W

etland restoration is a fundamental tool for protecting, improving and increasing wetland areas in our zone. By restoring wetlands, we want to see these areas present three main characteristics: hydrology, hydric soil, and hydrophitic vegetation. In layman’s terms, this means that there must be flowing water, the soil must be saturated, and there must be vegetation that is resistant to great volumes of water. There are places in which wetlands have been drained or filled to make way for construction, urban development and/or agricultural needs, or which have been adversely affected by extreme droughts. These places can be restored. Planning, implementing, monitoring and managing are essential to wetland restoration processes. Wetlands serve important ecological functions and are very valuable because of the services they bring. These are water-capturing places which protect us from flooding. Furthermore, they are part of the recharge process for aquifers, which serve as sources of freshwater. They also provide food and refuge for wildlife and are considered as critical habitat for endangered species.

According to Cowardin’s classification system, there are different wetland types whose characteristics should be considered when undertaking a restoration process. Here, we outline these types and offer a brief explanation. • marine - These are wetlands exposed to waves and open sea currents, and to water with salinity above 30 parts per thousand. Coastal wetlands and seagrass meadows are examples of marine wetlands. • estuarine - These are wetlands affected by tides in environments with low energy waves, where water salinity is above 0.5 parts per mil and blends saltwater with freshwater. Mangroves are usually present in an estuary. River deltas reaching the sea are estuaries. • lacustrine - These are freshwater wetlands subject to tidal flow within a reservoir or lake measuring over 20 acres and/or deeper than 6 feet, which is permanently or intermittently flooded. Vegetation consists of emergent plants (plants rising out of the water or which grow in the presence of water) and submerged and/or floating plants.

• riparian - These are wetlands subject to tidal flow within a canal. Their vegetation is similar to the lacustrine system. These wetlands can be found close to rivers and streams. • palustrine - These are freshwater wetlands subject to tidal flow in which the main vegetation consists of trees, shrubs, grasses in erect, persistent and rooted growth, submerged and/or floating plants. Swamps and mangrove forests are marsh wetlands.

These ecosystems have already suffered greatly because of human activities and, therefore, its vulnerabilities to climate change has increased. Poor use of the soil, urban and industrial land development, and wetland draining for farm use are the main causes for wetland degradation and loss.

According to the type of wetlands undergoing restoration, plants that thrive on the characteristics inherent to each type of wetland should be used, including flood conditions, water pooling, and different water levels.

Wetland restoration favors conservation and contributes to the practice of sustainable use of the wetlands with the purpose of mitigating the effects of climate change. They are very important in the carbon and nitrogen sequestering process. By virtue of being buffer zones, wetlands protect us from flooding due to storm surges and sea level rise.

Designs

References

Wetland restoration designs should include: • diagrams and specifications for the construction and installation according on the location, • descriptions on how to plant and manage the vegetation, • plans for the care and management of plants, operation, and maintenance, and • a list of the species to be used, the amount of each plant considered and the specific location in which it will be settled; this is known as a sketch.

Brown, M.T. (1991). Evaluating constructed wetlands through comparisons with natural wetlands [pdf]. Corvallis, Oregon. Recovered from U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Environmental Research Laboratory

Benefits of wetland restoration These zones are sources of food and energy, provide beauty to their surroundings, and offer opportunities for tourism, recreation and economy. Furthermore, wetlands create and enhance wildlife habitats, protect watersheds and protect nesting areas used by resident and migratory bird species.

Wetland restoration and climate change Wetlands are the most water-dependent systems on Earth, which makes them the worst affected by climate change. Climate change includes severe drought events and changes in hydrology which might translate into a lack or excess of water.

Cowardin, L.M.V. Carter, F.C. Golet, E.T. LaRoe. (1979). Classification of Wetlands and Deepwater habitats of the United States USDI, FWS, WDC Departamento de Recursos Naturales y Ambientales. (2001). Guide to identify common wetlands plants in the Caribbean area: Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands: Guía para la identificación de plantas comunes en humedales de la zona del Caribe: Puerto Rico e Islas Vírgenes EE.UU. 1st edn. San Juan, P.R: University of Puerto Rico Press. US Geological Survey. (1996). National Water Summary on Wetland Resources- Water Supply Paper 2425 [pdf]. Recovered from Google Books. U.S. Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS). (2010). National Conservation Practice Standard: Wetland Restoration-Code 657[pdf]. Recovered from http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_ DOCUMENTS/nrcs143_026340.pdf

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Credits

The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) is an equal opportunity provider, employer, and lender. This publication made possible through a grant from the USDA Forest Service.