Caribbean Endangered and Threatened Animals

Guajón Coquí

Eleutherodactylus cooki

Distribution

Biological Information

Also Known As: Puerto Rican Rock or Cave Frog Puerto Rican Demon

Family: Leptodactylidae Order: Anura

Description

The guajón coquí is the second largest Eleutherodactylus frog species in Puerto Rico, reaching body sizes of approximately 2-3 inches (5-7.6 cm) in length and females being larger than males. The guajón coquí is characterized by large bulging eyes and large truncate disks at the end of its long feet. The guajón has a solid brown coloration on the dorsal area. Females are uniformly white on the ventral area, and males have a yellow coloration on the ventral area extending from the vocal sac to the abdomen and flanks. The guajón coquí’s voice is low and melodious, consisting on a series of 3 to 7 notes of the same type. Males will actively call during the late afternoon and night and to a lesser degree during daylight hours.

Reproduction The reproductive activity of the guajón increases in the rainy and hotter months during summer and fall and decreases in the cooler and drier winter months. The female coquí guajón typically lays an egg mass on the rock surfaces with an average of approximately 16 eggs. The male guajón provides parental care to the egg mass by keeping the eggs hydrated and protecting them from predators. One male guajón can provide care to multiple egg masses from different females. In approximately 20-29 days eggs hatch into tiny frogs, of 0.34 inch (8.7 mm) in legth on average. This is the most critical life stage for these animals.

Habitat The name guajón is derived from the typical rock formations of the species habitat known as “guajonales”. These are caves and cavities made of plutonic, granitic or sedimentary rocks. The species also lives in rocky stream banks covered with moss, ferns and other vegetation. “Guajonales” also usually occur along creeks or other natural water runoff areas.

Diet The guajón coquí is an important primary consumer of invertebrates. They can eat a large variety of insects like cockroaches and crickets as well as other invertebrates such as spiders.

Distribution The guajón frog is endemic to Puerto Rico and is restricted to the southeastern part of the island.

Guajón populations are known to occur in the

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following municipalities: San Lorenzo, Juncos, Las Piedras, Humacao, Yabucoa, Maunabo, Patillas.

Populations are extremely limited in distribution within its habitat and only occur on privately-owned lands.

Threats Deforestation and degradation of the guajón coquí’s habitat is one of the mayor threats to the species.

These include deforestation for rural and urban development, in addition to road and water reservoir constructions. Other threats include stream water pollution, erosion, pathogens and parasites.

Conservation Measures The species was listed under the Endangered Species Act in 1997. On 2007, the USFWS designated 17 critical habitat units within the species known range.

The USFWS works closely with other federal agencies that permit, finance or conduct activities within designated critical habitat, looking for ways to avoid or minimize impacts to the species.

The Endangered Species Act of 1973, as amended, prohibits the killing, harassing, trapping, purchasing or selling any species, as well as parts and products derived from the species.

References Rivero, J.A. 1978. Los anfibios y reptiles de Puerto Rico. U.P.R. Editorial Universitaria. San Juan, Puerto Rico 152 pp.

Moreno, J.A. (ed.) 1991. Status y distribución de los anfibios y reptiles de Puerto Rico. Publ. Cien. Misc Joglar, R. L. 1998. Los coquíes de Puerto Rico: Su historia natural y conservación. Editorial de la Universidad de Puerto Rico, San Juan, Puerto Rico. 232 pp.

USFWS. 2011 Guajón or Puerto Rican Demon (Eleutherodactylus cooki) 5-Year Review. USFWS Caribbean Ecological Services Field Office, Boquerón, PR. 18 pp. Available at: http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/five_year_review/doc3624.pdf Vega-Castillo, S.I. 2000. Habitat description and comparison of the Puerto Rican Demon or Guajón, (Eleutherodactylus cooki) at two localities on the eastern part of Puerto Rico. M.S. Thesis, University of Puerto Rico, Mayagüez Campus.

Additional Information Caribbean Ecological Services Field Office Address: P.O. Box 491 Boquerón, PR 00622 Phone: 787-851-7297 / Fax: 787-787-7440 Website: www.fws.gov/caribbean

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Golden Coquí Eleutherodactylus jasperi

Distribution the embryos fully develop and then “give birth” to live offspring. Golden coquí do not have a tadpole stage, but rather hatch as tiny replicas of the adult frogs. In other words, these frogs have no aquatic larval stage. This is known as direct development.

Habitat All that is known about the golden coquí’s habitat is that it lives in the bromeliads growing on trees, on the ground, and/or on vertical surfaces like cliff sides. The areas in which these frogs were found are considered xerophytic; that is to say, arid.

Family: Leptodactylidae Order: Anura

Description The golden coquí is one of the seventeen (17) endemic frog species in the Eleutherodactylus genus, a word which means “free toes”. This coquí is small: it measures 0.75 inch (19 mm). It has a golden yellow color, as its common name indicates. Its call consists of two (2) to six (6) notes of the same tone, and has been described as a “tweet-tweet-tweet”. The species was found for the first time in 1973, and it was described as a new species to the scientific world in 1976. However, it has not been seen nor heard since 1981.

Biological Information Reproduction The golden coquí is the only frog species in the New World which is ovoviviparous. As it occurs with ovoviviparous species, and thus the golden coquí, the females retain the fertilized eggs in their oviducts until

Diet This coquí’s feeding habits are unknown. In all probability, it feeds on small insects, similarly to other frog species.

Distribution The golden coquí was discovered in the mountains in the Sierra de Cayey and the Carite Forest, located in the Sierra, in an area comprised of the Cayey, Caguas, Guayama, San Lorenzo and Patillas municipalities.

Threats Habitat modification and destruction are the main threats for this species. The areas in which the species was discovered has been deforested, developed, and negatively impacted by fires. In surveys performed in 1986 and 1994, the species was searched for but not found. The specificity of the habitat and the limited distribution makes this species very vulnerable to any changes in the habitat or the climate. It is also believed that chytridiomycosis, an infectious disease that is caused by fungus, could have also contributed to the species’ decline.

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Conservation Measures

References

The golden coquí was included in the federal list of endangered species in 1977. In that same year, the Monte El Gato, Cerro Avispa and a portion of the Sierra de Cayey, all located in Cayey, were designated as critical habitats. Although the species has not been heard or seen in many years, it does not necessarily mean it is extinct. Further surveys and searches are needed in both historic locations and other locations.

Drewry, G.E. and K. L. Jones. 1976. A new ovoviviparous frog (Eleutherodactylus jasperi) from Puerto Rico. J. Herpeto1.10: 101-105.

The Endangered Species Act of 1973, as amended, prohibits the killing, harassing, trapping, purchasing or selling any species, as well as parts and products derived from the species.

Additional Information

Joglar, R. L. 1998. Los coquíes de Puerto Rico: Su historia natural y conservación. Editorial de la Universidad de Puerto Rico, San Juan, Puerto Rico, 232 pp.

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1984. Golden coquí recovery plan, Atlanta, Georgia. 12pp.

Caribbean Ecological Services Field Office Address: PO Box 491 Boquerón, PR 00622 Telephone: 787-851-7297 / Fax: 787-851-7440 Internet: www.fws.gov/caribbean

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Plains Coquí, or Coquí Llanero

Eleutherodactylus juanariveroi

Distribution plants are usually in abundance in the wetlands in which the plains coquí are found. Cyperus plants are herbaceous plants that only grow in wetlands and marshes. The type of wetlands in which these plants grow are rare in Puerto Rico.

Wildlife experts estimate a population of about 192 individuals per acre, but the population is not evenly distributed within the 615-acre (633 cuerdas) of the wetlands in which it is found.

Diet The plains coquí feeds mostly on small insects.

Family: Leptodactylidae Order: Anura

Description The plains coquí is the smallest frog species in Puerto Rico. Its size is approximately that of a dime. The average size in males is 0.58 inches, or 14.7 mm, while females average 0.62 inches, or 15.8 mm, in size. Their coloring varies from light brown to yellow.

Its nostrils are prominent and the tip of its snout is slightly squared.

Biological Information Reproduction It is the species with the least reproductive capacity among Puerto Rican tree frogs. The plains coquí only produces one to five eggs per clutch. The coquí llanero only lays its eggs on bulltongue arrowhead (Sagittaria lancifolia) leaves.

Habitat Ferns, plants in the Cyperus genus, bulltongue arrowheads, creeper vines and graminous (grassy)

Distribution The plains coquí’s geographical distribution is the most limited, out of all the coquí species in Puerto Rico. The only known population is adapted to survive in only one herbaceous freshwater wetland located in the former Sabana Seca Navy grounds, and in Toa Baja lands managed by the Puerto Rico Land Authority. The Sabana Seca wetland is located on the San Pedro Marsh, located in Toa Baja. This marsh is split into two parts: an estuarine wetland in the north, and a palustrine (freshwater) wetland in the south. The plains coquí inhabits all of the southern part of the marsh.

Information About the Coquí’s Call This coquí’s call has the highest frequency out of all of Puerto Rico’s amphibian species. It oscillates between 7.38 and 8.28 kHz. Therefore, the coquí’s calls can go unnoticed when paired with other noises and is hard to isolate. This species’ call consists of a series of notes that can last between 4 to 21 seconds. Males begin calling after 4:30 PM, and significantly decrease their calls before midnight.

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Threats The main risk faced by this species is the way urban development has destroyed and modified its habitat. Depredation also poses a risk to the coquí llanero, especially in the drier edges of the wetland.

The isolation in which this species lives makes it vulnerable to diseases and predation.

Other natural or anthropogenic factors affect this species’ existence. Some of these factors are: climate change, hurricanes, polluted runoff from landfill lixiviate, soil and water pollution, herbicide use, dredging done on the canals along the wetland, and the reduction of their habitat due to construction projects.

There are also several indirect threats that can harm the coquí llanero. For instance, if climate change causes a rise in ocean levels, this can change the composition of the wetland, turning it from a freshwater system to a saltwater one. This would change the composition of the area’s vegetation, which in turn would drastically alter the coquí’s way of life and means of reproduction.

Conservation Measures The plains coquí was included in the federal list of endangered species in 2012. This action will bring to light this species’ vulnerability. In that same year, the wetland in which the coquí lives was designated a critical habitat. This designation helps ensure that the biological and ecological factors of the wetland will not be destroyed or modified by projects with federal funding or permits.

The Endangered Species Act of 1973, as amended, prohibits the killing, harassing, trapping, purchasing or selling any species, as well as parts and products derived from the species.

References Departamento de Recursos Naturales y Ambientales. 2007a.

Designación del coquí llanero Eleutherodactylus juanariveroi como especie en peligro crítico de extinción. San Juan, Puerto Rico. 11 pp.

Departamento de Recursos Naturales y Ambientales. 2007b.

Designación del hábitat crítico esencial del coquí llanero. San Juan, Puerto Rico. 48 pp.

Joglar, R.L. 2005. Biodiversidad de Puerto Rico, Vertebrados Terrestres y Ecosystemas. Editorial del Instituto de Cultura Puertorriqueña. 563 pp.

Ríos-López, N. 2007. The structuring of herpetofaunal assemblages in human-altered coastal ecosystems. Doctoral in Philosophy Thesis. University of Puerto Rico, Río Piedras Campus. 247 pp.

Ríos-López, N. and R. Thomas. 2007. A new species of palustrine Eleutherodactylus (Anura: Leptodactylidae) from Puerto Rico.

Zootaxa 1512: 51-64.

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 2011. Endangered and threatened wildlife and plants; 12-month petition finding, Proposed Listing of Coquí llanero as Endangered, and Designation of Critical Habitat for Coquí Llanero; Proposed Rule. Federal Register 76: 63420-63442.

Additional Information Caribbean Ecological Services Field Office Address: PO Box 491, Boquerón, PR 00622 Telephone: 787-851-7297 / Fax: 787-851-7440 Internet: www.fws.gov/caribbean

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Puerto Rican Crested Toad

Peltophryne lemur

Distribution

Biological Information

Family: Bufonidae Order: Anura

Description The adult Puerto Rican crested toad is medium-sized, reaching a length of between 2.5 to 4.5 inches (6 – 11 centimeters). The coloring in adult individuals varies from yellowish green to blackish brown on the dorsal area, and creamy white on the ventral area. Its skin has a pebbled texture. The species has a snout which curves upwards. Their eyes are like beautiful marbled gold colored crystals. These toads have crests above their eyes, hence its common name, and it is this feature which sets it apart from other toad species.

Males are smaller than the females, and their crests are not as prominent. The juveniles (less than an inch [2.5 centimeters] long) present a coloration pattern very different from the adult specimens. The pattern features light-colored splotches on the sides, and two darker, triangular-shaped spots on their backs, shaped like an hourglass.

Reproduction In nature, the crested toad only reproduces in temporary pools which are formed when there is more than 4 inches (10 centimeters) of precipitation. Once the adults reach the pools, the males vocalize (croak) in order to attract females.

The males will climb onto the female, forming an “amplexus� (embrace) to fertilize the strand of eggs as the females lay them. They both swim around the pool, so that the egg strand can become attached to the vegetation in the pool. Egg strands can contain up to 15,000 eggs, and will hatch into tadpoles within 24 hours of being laid. After 18 days, the tadpoles transform (metamorphosis) into tiny toads. Once they climb out of the pool, the tiny toads migrate towards limestone areas within the forest to find protection.

Although there is a high percentage of egg survival, the eggs face many threats such as: predators, changes in temperature and salinity, and pool drying out before the eggs hatch or the tadpoles can metamorphose into juvenile toads. It is also worth mentioning that crested toads, like many other toad species, do not provide parental care to assure the survival of their offspring during the vulnerable early stages of life. For these reasons, although many eggs, tadpoles and juveniles occur, only an approximate 1% reaches adulthood.

Habitat The habitat in which the Puerto Rican crested toad is found is usually described as a coastal dry forest, although they can also be found in subtropical, humid forest habitats, mainly along the karst fringes along the north and south coasts of Puerto Rico. The crested

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toad hides in limestone cavities and holes. The species also uses the nest cavities made by Puerto Rican todies – usually in earthen walls or embankments – and underground spider lairs and crab burrows. This discrete behavior makes detecting the species difficult in surveys, which hinders population calculations.

Recently, the crested toad population is calculated by counting the individuals (males as well as females) observed during a reproductive event. Due to this, crested toad population numbers may vary depending on the intensity of the event observed.

Diet The crested toad is a predator. It feeds on insects like crickets, roaches and centipedes, among others.

Distribution The Puerto Rican crested toad is a species endemic to Puerto Rico and Virgen Gorda (British Virgin Islands). Information found in the species’ historical collection in Puerto Rico suggests that the species had a wider distribution throughout the karst fringes in the north and south coasts of Puerto Rico than the present distribution. The crested toad can be found from the sea level, going up to an elevation of 650 feet (200 meters) above sea level. The species had been described in 1868 in the municipalities of Bayamón, Morovis, Vega Baja, Barceloneta, Arecibo, Isabela, Quebradillas, Camuy, Santa Isabel, Coamo, Ponce, Guayanilla, and Yauco. Presently, only three (3) naturally-occurring populations have been located in the southern coast of Puerto Rico, between the municipalities of Guayanilla, Yauco and Guánica.

The biggest known population is found in Guánica Commonwealth Forest. In Santa Isabel, the species

was last seen in 1972. In the northern coast of Puerto Rico, especially in the municipalities of Isabela and Quebradillas, the species has not been seen since 1992, despite efforts made to locate them. In Virgen Gorda, the species is believed to be extinct.

Threats The main factors contributing to the Puerto Rican crested toad’s diminishing populations are the following: • Loss of habitat due to modification, fragmentation, deforestation and pool (pond) elimination due to tourism, urban and agricultural development.

• The introduction of exotic species, and native species, which compete with or predate on the Puerto Rican crested toad. Some of these are the cane toad (Rhinella marina), the bullfrog (Rana catesbeiana), as well as dragonfly larvae (naiads).

Conservation Measures The Puerto Rican crested toad was included in the federal endangered species list in 1987. Since 1993, species recovery efforts have been jointly coordinated between the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, the Puerto Rico Department of Natural and Environmental Resources, the Association of Zoos and Aquariums (AZA), and other entities belonging to the Puerto Rican Crested Toad Task Force. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife has been promoting the improvement and preservation of the habitats located in private land.

The Department of Natural and Environmental Resources has been managing the properties under its jurisdiction, so as to preserve and protect the species. The Association of Zoos and Aquariums

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has established a captive breeding program for the species, in which 31 national zoos and two Canadian zoos collaborate. Thanks to these combined efforts, thousands of tadpoles are released every year in six protected areas in Puerto Rico. This helps promote the establishment of new populations and the expansion of the range for the species. At the moment, the species is being reintroduced in the following north coast properties: La Esperanza, in Manatí; Río Encantado, between Ciales-Florida; and El Tallonal, in Arecibo. In the southern coast, the following properties are hosting similar reintroductions: El Convento, in Guayanilla; Finca Gabia, in Coamo; and Manglillo Grande, located within Guánica Commonwealth Forest.

The Endangered Species Act of 1973, as amended, prohibits the killing, harassing, trapping, purchasing or selling any species, as well as parts and products derived from the species.

Additional Facts The common name ‘Puerto Rican crested toad’ was originally given to Peltophryne lemur. With the species’ decline in Puerto Rico, the name extended to include the introduced cane toad (Rhinella marina), which is less crested and larger than Peltophryne lemur. The exotic species’ populations grew so much it has become the most common toad in Puerto Rico.

This now-common toad was introduced to Puerto Rico in the 1920s as biological control for the white worm which plagued the sugar-cane fields.

Some Recommended Practices If you see a Puerto Rican crested toad in any other areas not described in this fact sheet, please notify the appropriate agency. You can call the Caribbean Ecological Services Field Office, at 787-851-7297.

References García-Díaz, J.1967. Rediscovery of Bufo lemur (Cope) and additional records of reptiles from Puerto Rico. Stahlia 10:1-6 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1992. Recovery plan for the Puerto Rican crested toad (Peltrophryne lemur). U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Atlanta, Georgia. 19 pp.

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 2014. Draft- Five Year Status Review of the Puerto Rican Crested Toad (Peltrophryne lemur).

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Caribbean Ecological Service Boquerón Field Office, Puerto Rico. 48 pp.

Additional Information Caribbean Ecological Services Field Office Address: PO Box 491, Boquerón, PR 00622 Telephone: 787-851-7297 Fax: 787-851-7440 Internet: www.fws.gov/caribbean

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St. Croix Ground Lizard Ameiva polops

Distribution Habitat The species’ habitat includes forested, woodland, and shrub land areas. The species is most commonly found in sandy areas and patches of direct sunlight, on the ground, or in low canopy cover and leaf litter (fallen leaves). Ground lizards spend most of their time foraging and thermoregulating. Other activities include aggressive interactions among individuals, mating, and burrowing behavior.

Family: Teiidae Order: Squamata

Description

Diet Individuals actively forage within leaf litter (fallen leaves) and loosely compacted soils for a variety of invertebrates such as centipedes, moths, arthropods, hermit crabs, sand fleas, and segmented worms.

The St. Croix ground lizard (Ameiva polops) is a small lizard that can measure between 14 to 30 inches (35 - 77 mm) in length. It features wide dorsal striping, a pink throat and white or cream ventral area. Male lizards have blue and white colored scales mottled below their tan and brown dorsal stripes. The lizard’s tail is longer than its body length and the tail is ringed with alternating blue and white bands. Juveniles have bright blue tails, and the tail coloration fades with age.

Male lizards are larger than females.

Distribution The lizard populations previously existed on the island of St. Croix, United States Virgin Islands, and other adjacent cays. The ground lizard is presumed extinct in St. Croix. The last report of the species in the main island of St. Croix was in 1968. Currently native populations occur in the offshore cays of Protestant Cay and the Green Cay National Wildlife Refuge. Two additional populations have been established through a translocation program in Ruth Cay and Buck Island Reef National Monument (BIRNM).

Biological Information

Threats

Reproducción These lizards reproductive cycle lasts from March through November. It is believed that females lay a single egg, twice a year.

The St. Croix ground lizard loss of population and decreases in other areas has been attributed mostly to invasive mongoose predation and significant habitat modification. Long-term effects of potential sea level rise and shoreline erosion, with subsequent loss of

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vegetation, would decrease food and shelter sources, thus increasing the habitat modification threat for the species.

Hurtado, L., C. Santamaria, and L. Fitzgerald. 2012.

Conservation Genetics of the Critically Endangered Saint Croix ground lizard (Ameiva polops Cope 1863). Conservation Genetics. 13(3): 665-679.

Conservation Measures

McNair D. 2003. Population Estimate, Habitat Associations, and Conservation of the St. Croix Ground lizard Ameiva polops at Protestant Cay, United States Virgin Islands. Caribbean Journal of Science. 39(1): 94-99.

The species was listed under the Endangered Species Act in 1977. Protestant Cay and Green Cay were designated critical habitats, as well. The translocation of lizards to create additional self-sustaining populations in protected areas has been implemented. In 1990 and 2008, several lizard populations were successfully transferred to Ruth Cay and Buck Island RNM, respectively. The persistence and success of these populations is possible because of interagency conservational efforts. For instance, the National Park Service undertook extensive efforts to maintain the islands free of mongooses and rats.

The Endangered Species Act of 1973, as amended, prohibits the killing, harassing, trapping, purchasing or selling any species, as well as parts and products derived from the species.

References Angeli N.F., K. Auer, K., N. Schwartz, Z. Westfall, C. Pollock, I. Lundgren and Z. Hillis-Starr. In Press. Ameiva polops (St. Croix Ground Lizard). Behavior. Herpetological Review.

Baskin,J.N. and E.E. Williams. 1966. The Lesser Antillean Ameiva (Sauria, Teiidae). Reevaluation, zoogeography and the effects of predation. Stud. Fauna Curacao Caribbean Islands 23:144-178.

Dodd, C. 1980. Ameiva polops Cope. St. Croix ground lizard.

Catalogue of American Amphibians and Reptiles. 240.1-240.2.

National Park Service. 2008. Environmental Assessment: Collect and Re-introduction of Endangered Endemic St. Croix Ground Lizard, Ameiva polops, to Buck Islands Reef National Monument, St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands. Department of Planning and Natural Resources. 44 pp.

Geographic Consulting. 2013. Population Assessment of the St. Croix Ground Lizard (Ameiva polops) at Protestant Cay. Report to the US Virgin Islands Division of Fish and Wildlife. 10 pp.

Grant, C.1937. Herpetological notes with new species from the American and Bristish Virgin Islands, 1936.J. Agr. Univ. Puerto Rico 21:503-522.

Heatwole, H. and F. Torres. 1967. Distribution and geographic variation of the Ameivas of Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands.

Stud. Fauna Curacao Caribbean Islands 24:64-111.

McNair, D.B. and W. Coles. (2003) Response of the St. Croix Ground Lizard Ameiva polops to Severe Local Disturbance of Critical Habitat at Protestant Cay: Before and After Comparison.

Caribbean Journal of Science, 39(3): 392 - 298.

McNair D. and A. Mackay. 2005. Population Estimates and Management of Ameiva polops (Cope) at Ruth Island, United States Virgin Islands. Caribbean Journal of Science 41(2): 352357.

Philibosian R. and J. Yntema. 1976. Records and status of some reptiles and amphibian in the Virgin Islands. 1968-1975.

Herpetologica 32: 81-85.

Philibosian R. and R. Ruibal. 1971. Conservation of the lizard Ameiva polops in the Virgin Islands. Herpetologica 27: 450-454.

Platenberg R. and R. Boulon, Jr. 2006.Conservation status of reptiles and amphibians in the U.S. Virgin Islands. Applied Herpetology 3:215-235.

Treglia M. 2010. A Translocated Population of the St. Croix Ground Lizard: Analyzing its Detection Probability and Investigating Impacts on the Local Prey Base. Masters of Science Thesis. Texas A&M University.

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS). 1984. St. Croix Ground Lizard Recovery Plan. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Atlanta, Georgia. 26 pp.

USFWS. 2013. St. Croix ground lizard 5-Year Review. USFWS, Caribbean Ecological Services Field Office, Boquerรณn, PR. 19 pp. Available at: http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/five_year/doc4247.pdf Witmer G. and Z. Hillis-Starr. 2002. The Eradication of Introduced Rats at Buck Island Reef National Monument, St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands. U.S. Department of the Interior. NPS Report, unpublished, 67 pp.

Additional Information Caribbean Ecological Services Field Office Address: PO Box 491, Boquerรณn, PR 00622 Telephone: 787-851-7297 / Fax: 787-851-7440 Internet: www.fws.gov/caribbean

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Lagartijo gigante de Culebra

Anolis roosvelti

Distribución Reproducción No se conoce nada de la reproducción de esta especie.

Familia: Iguanidae Orden: Squamata

Descripción El lagartijo gigante de Culebra es similar en proporción al lagarto verde de Puerto Rico, Anolis cuvieri, excepto que la cabeza es más delgada y puntiaguda y el cuerpo es, en general, más largo. El color del espécimen macho coleccionado en 1931 era marrón-grisáceo con dos bandas claras a cada lado del cuerpo. El mismo tenía una mancha clara a cada lado de la cabeza, párpados amarillos, rabo marrón amarilloso y vientre blancuzco.

Información biológica No se sabe mucho acerca de los hábitos de este lagarto. El espécimen coleccionado en 1931 se encontró en un área de bosque ficus y almácigo (Bursera simaruba). Se presume que se alimenta de frutas, insectos y otros lagartos pequeños como otros de su especie.

Distribución Se conoce que habitaba en la isla de Culebra, aunque hace muchos años se coleccionaron especímenes en Vieques, Tórtola (Islas Vírgenes británicas) y St. John (Islas Vírgenes americanas).

La especie se presume extinta ya que no se han reportado avistamientos desde 1932. Las áreas donde se pudiera encontrar esta especie incluyen áreas cercanas a Monte Resaca, la vecindad de Cerro Balcón y una pequeña área en el noroeste de Cayo Luis Peña.

En censos realizados por el Departamento de Recursos Naturales y Ambientales en 1986 y 1987, no se encontraron individuos de esta especie.

Amenazas Se considera que la deforestación de las áreas de bosque maduro en Culebra es la causa principal de la aparente desaparición de esta especie. El aumento de desarrollos residenciales y turísticos ha reducido significantemente la cantidad de hábitat a través del tiempo. La especie pudo haber sido afectada por depredación de especies exóticas como los gatos ferales.

Medidas de conservación El lagartijo gigante de Culebra fue incluido en la lista federal de especies en peligro de extinción en el año 1977. El Servicio Federal de Pesca y Vida Silvestre designó como hábitat crítico ciertas zonas de bosque maduro en la parte norte de Culebra.

La Ley Federal de Especies en Peligro de Extinción de 1973, según enmendada, prohíbe matar, dañar, molestar, atrapar, comprar o vender una especie, así como partes o productos derivados de ellas.

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Referencias Carr, T.and A. Carr.1977.The marine turtles and terrestrial reptiles of Culebra Island.U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Atlanta, Georgia, Contract 1416-0008-2089.28 pp.

Ojeda, A.G. 1987. Culebra giant anole status determination study.

Final report, Department of Natural Resources, San Juan, Puerto Rico. 29 pp.

Ojeda, A.G. 2009. Status of the Culebra Island Giant Anole (Anolis roosevelti). Herpetological Conservation and Biology 5 (2): 223-232.

Grant, C. 1931.A new species and two new sub-species of the genus Anolis. J. Dept. Agri . Puerto Rico. 15:219-222. Grant, C. 1932. Herpetological notes from the Puerto Rico area. J. Dept.

Agri. Puerto Rico 16(2):161-165.

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1982. Giant anole recovery plan.

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Atlanta, Georgia. 19pp.

USFWS. 2014. Culebra Giant Anole (Anolis roosvelti) 5-Year Review. USFWS, Caribbean Ecological Services Field Office, Boquerón, PR. 21pp. Available at: http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/ five_year_review/doc4331.pdf

Información adicional Oficina de Servicios Ecológicos del Caribe Dirección: PO Box 491, Boquerón, PR 00622 Teléfono: 787-851-7297 Fax: 787-851-7440 Internet: www.fws.gov/caribbean

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Loggerhead Sea Turtle

Caretta caretta

Distribution approximately 12-day intervals. An average clutch size includes 115 eggs, and the incubation period lasts between 49 to 68 days (averaging at 55 days). The hatchlings usually emerge at night.

Habitat Loggerheads can be found hundreds of miles into the open sea, as well as in bays, lagoons, navigation canals, coral reefs, rocky areas and shipwrecks.

Family: Cheloniidae Order: Chelonia

Description The loggerhead sea turtle is an unfamiliar sea turtle species in Puerto Rico. Adult turtles can reach a length of approximately 3 feet (1 meter) long and an average weight of 200 pounds (91 kilograms). It is characterized by its large head. Its rather peculiar beak is made up of two solid, curved mandibles. The carapace, or shell, is notably longer than it is wide, and is formed of callous scutes (plates), distinguishing it from the hawksbill sea turtle. The adult loggerheads are usually of a brownish red color, and young turtles have dark lines.

Biological Information Reproduction In the southeast United States, nesting season lasts from May through August. The loggerhead lays its eggs at nighttime every 2 or 3 years. It can lay between 3 to 5 clutches of eggs in one season over

Diet These turtles are primarily carnivorous. Their diet includes crabs and other crustaceans, echinoderms, gastropods and fish.

Distribution This species is widely distributed, and can be found in temperate, subtropical waters around the atlantic Ocean, the Mediterranean Sea, the Black Sea, and the Pacific and Indian Oceans. The beaches with the most nests are found in Australia, the Sultanate of Oman in Asia, and in southeast US. There are no known nesting sites in Puerto Rico, or in the US Virgin Islands. As a matter of fact, the only sightings of the loggerhead sea turtle in Puerto Rico have been limited to the waters northeast and southeast of the Island.

Threats Some of the factors contributing to the reduction in the amount of loggerhead sea turtles include: beach erosion, coastal developments, artificial lighting, recreation-related disturbances (such as driving on the beach and boat collisions), the introduction of exotic vegetation, nest depredations, slaughter, pollution (such as oil spills), dredging, use of fishing nets, becoming trapped in energy facilities, ingestion

THREATENED

of garbage found in the sea, and naturally-occurring diseases.

Conservation Measures The loggerhead sea turtle is protected by federal and state law, as are all other sea turtle species. The loggerhead was listed under the Endangered Species Act in 1978.

The Endangered Species Act of 1973, as amended, prohibits the killing, harassing, trapping, purchasing or selling any species, as well as parts and products derived from the species.

References

Lutz, P.L., J.A. Musick, and J. Wyneken (eds.). 2003. The Biology of Sea Turtles, Volume 2. CRC Press, Inc., Boca Ratรณn, FL. National Marine Fisheries and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.

1993. Recovery plan for U.S. population of loggerhead turtle.

National Marine Fisheries Service, Washington, D.C. Decline of the Sea Turtles -Causes and Prevention. 1990.

National Academy Press, Washington, D.C.

Additional Information

Caribbean Ecological Services Field Office Address: PO Box 491, Boquerรณn, PR 00622 Telephone: 787-851-7297 Fax: 787-851-7440 Internet: www.fws.gov/caribbean

1993. The Grolier World Encyclopedia Of Endangered Species Oceania. Grolier Educational Corporation, Danbury, CT. Lutz, P.L., and J.A. Musick (eds.). 1997. The Biology of Sea Turtles. CRC Press, Inc., Boca Ratรณn, FL.

THREATENED

Green Sea Turtle

Chelonia mydas

Distribution

Biological Information

Family: Chelonidae Order: Chelonia (Testudinata)

Description The green sea turtle is a marine species. It is the biggest of the hard-shelled sea turtles. It has a pair of prefrontal scales on its head, and its jaw is serrated.

This turtle also has claws on the front flippers. Adult turtles can measure up to 39 inches (1 meter) long, and weigh approximately 350 pounds (159 kilograms).

An adult specimen’s carapace is light brown with irregular, dark splotches; it is smooth and uniform and does not have overlapping scutes like its close relative, the hawksbill sea turtle. The ventral area is whitishyellow, and its head is relatively small and of a light brown color with yellow spots. Hatchlings are about 2 inches (50 millimeters) long, and weigh approximately 0.05 pounds (25 grams). Juveniles have a black carapace and a whitish plastron (ventral area), along with the edge of the carapace and the flippers. The common name of this sea turtle species does not relate to the color of the carapace but rather to the color of their body fat.

The green sea turtle’s lifespan is estimated to last between 15 to 30 years, although there is evidence that suggests that they can live for as many as 50 years. Sea turtles are especially adapted for life at sea. Because they are ectothermic (cold-blooded, with a body temperature regulated by the environment), they have slow metabolism, which translates into less oxygen consumption used for its cellular functions.

A green sea turtle can remain underwater for up to 5 hours. It can accomplish this by slowing its heartbeats, with up to 9 minutes between palpitations, thus preserving oxygen.

Reproduction In the Caribbean, green sea turtle’s mating season is from June to September. Males visit nesting sites every year, although females only mate every 2 to 4 years. After mating in the water, females will climb to shore, going past the high-tide line. Once she is on dry sand, she digs a hole with her back flippers and lays her eggs. A clutch can contain over 100 eggs. Finally, she covers the eggs with sand and returns to the sea.

After an incubation period which can last between 45 to 75 days, the eggs hatch during the night and the hatchlings will instinctively head towards the sea. It is estimated that green sea turtles reach sexual maturity after 20 to 50 years.

Habitat Green sea turtles use three types of habitat: beaches, high seas (pelagic convergence areas) and coastal foraging sites. This sea turtle can mostly be found in shallow waters near reefs, bays, inlets, and seagrass meadows. Peaceful beaches with gentle inclines are their preferred nesting beaches.

THREATENED

Diet Green sea turtle feeding habits change as the turtle grows through its life stages. This species is mostly omnivorous, feeding on both animal and plant matter, during the juvenile stage. When it becomes an adult, it becomes mostly herbivorous (feeding mostly on plant matter). Its jaws are specially adapted for a vegetarian diet, consuming seagrass and algae.

Distribution This species is widely distributed, inhabiting both tropical and temperate zones. There is awareness of three subpopulations, in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans. Under the United States’s jurisdiction, green sea turtle nesting sites have been identified in Puerto Rico, the US Virgin Islands, and on the continental US, from Texas to Massachusetts. In Puerto Rico, however, green sea turtle populations are small. On Florida’s east coast, on the other hand, populations are much larger.

Threats Some of the factors contributing to the reduction in the amount of green sea turtles include: excessive poaching for their meat, egg harvesting, nest depredation, loss and modification of nesting and feeding habitats due to coastal developments, and death from becoming entangled in fishing nets or being struck by boats. The green sea turtle, like all other sea turtles worldwide, are negatively impacted by: coastal erosion, artificial lighting (which disorients hatchlings and leads them away from the sea), and pollutants and solid wastes that reach the sea as a result of human action.

Conservation Measures The green sea turtle is protected by federal and state law. The species was listed under the Endangered Species Act in 1978. In 1998, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) designated several areas as critical habitats for the green sea turtle. These critical areas surround the Culebra island municipality, and include the waters around the neighboring cays. The critical areas are measured from the high tide line, to three nautical miles (5.6 kilometers) into the sea.

To aid in the recovery of the species, the Department of Natural and Environmental Resources (DNER) of Puerto Rico, the United States Fish and Wildlife Service, private associations and citizens and volunteers have taken upon themselves the task of patrolling the beaches during nesting season.

The Endangered Species Act of 1973, as amended, prohibits the killing, harassing, trapping, purchasing or selling any species, as well as parts and products derived from the species.

References Bustard, Robert. 1972. Sea turtles: their natural history and conservation. Taplinger Publishing Co., New York.

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1991. Recovery plan for U.S. population of Atlantic green turtle. National Marine Fisheries Service, Washington, D.C. 52 pp.

Lutz, P.L., and J.A. Musick (eds.). 1997. The Biology of Sea Turtles. CRC Press, Inc., Boca Ratón, FL. Lutz, P.L., J.A. Musick, and J. Wyneken (eds.). 2003. The Biology of Sea Turtles, Volume 2. CRC Press, Inc., Boca Ratón, FL. National Marine Fisheries Service, 1999, Endangered and Threatened Species Consolidation of Regulations, Final Rule, Federal Register 64 FR 14052-14077.

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and the National Marine Fisheries Service. 2007. Green sea turtle (Chelonia Mydas) 5-Year Review: Summary Evaluation, Atlanta, Ga., 107 pp.

Additional Information Caribbean Ecological Services Field Office Address: PO Box 491, Boquerón, PR 00622 Telephone: 787-851-7297 / Fax: 787-851-7440 Internet: www.fws.gov/caribbean

THREATENED

cornuta Iguana de Mona Cyclurastejnegeri

Distribución su nido subterráneo excavando un túnel con las patas y la cabeza. El nido es defendido durante tres o cuatro días para evitar que otras hembras no usen ese lugar para anidar o los depredadores se coman los huevos. El cascarón de los huevos es blando y tardan tres meses en incubarse. Las iguanas juveniles miden entre 10 a 12 pulgadas (25 a 30 centímetros) y pesan cerca de 2.5 onzas (aprox. 71 gramos).

Familia: Iguanidae Orden: Squamata

Descripción La iguana de Mona es el más grande de los lagartos de Puerto Rico. Este reptil terrestre de apariencia prehistórica mide de 3 a 4 pies (0.9 a 1.2 metros) de largo. Su cuerpo es pesado. Su cabeza es grande y el rabo es fuerte. Tiene una cresta dorsal espinosa desde la cabeza hasta el rabo, promontorios en la cabeza y una protuberancia en forma de cuerno pequeño en la punta del hocico. Su color es verde oliva o verde grisáceo y los juveniles pueden tener líneas transversales marrón o azulosas. Muchas veces, los machos se distinguen por su gran tamaño y por tener una serie de protuberancias grandes en la cara.

Información biológica Reproducción La temporada de reproducción de esta especie comienza en junio y termina en noviembre. Las hembras pueden aparearse con más de un macho. Un mes después del apareamiento, la hembra construye

Hábitat El hábitat de esta especie es un hábitat rocoso y seco en el que predomina la vegetación subtropical y seca.

Durante la noche y las horas más frías del día, la iguana se refugia en cuevas y en las hendiduras de las rocas.

Dieta La iguana de Mona es principalmente herbívora aunque puede comer materia animal. Se alimenta de frutas, hojas y flores.

Distribución La iguana de Mona es una especie endémica de la Reserva Natural de la Isla de Mona de Puerto Rico. Habita por toda la isla desde el bosque seco subtropical de la meseta, hasta las planicies costeras y los matorrales costeros de la isla.

Amenazas La causa principal para la reducción en la población de esta iguana es la introducción de especies exóticas tales como los cabros, los cerdos y los gatos a la Isla de Mona. Los cerdos desentierran los huevos de iguana para comérselos. Los gatos pueden matar fácilmente a las iguanas de menos de un año de edad.

También, las pisadas de los cabros pueden hacer colapsar los nidos de iguana y así destruir los huevos.

AMENAZADA

Medidas de conservación La iguana de Mona fue incluida en la lista federal de especies en peligro de extinción en 1978 como especie amenazada y se designó la Isla de Mona como hábitat crítico para esta especie. Se han cercado las áreas de anidamiento de la iguana para así minimizar el impacto de los depredadores sobre los nidos. Los huecos de estas cercas de metal son suficientemente grandes para permitir el libre movimiento de las iguanas de un lado a otro de la cerca, pero excluyen el paso de cerdos y cabros. Los visitantes deben mantenerse en los caminos y en las veredas para no destruir los nidos de este reptil, ya que no se pueden distinguir fácilmente.

La Ley Federal de Especies en Peligro de Extinción de 1973, según enmendada, prohíbe matar, dañar, molestar, atrapar, comprar o vender una especie, así como partes o productos derivados de ellas.

Referencias García, M. A., Pérez-Buitrago, N., Álvarez, A. O., & Tolson, P. J. (2007). Survival, dispersal and reproduction of headstarted Mona Island iguanas, Cyclura cornuta stejnegeri. Applied Herpetology, 4(4), 357.

Pérez-Buitrago, N., Sabat, A., Funk, S. M., García, M. A., Alvarez, A. O., & McMillan, W. O. (2007). Spatial ecology of the Mona Island iguana Cyclura cornuta stejnegeri in an undisturbed environment. Applied Herpetology, 4(4), 347.

Pérez-Buitrago, N., & Sabat, A. (2007). Natal dispersal, home range and habitat use of hatchlings of the Mona Island iguana (Cyclura cornuta stejnegeri). Applied Herpetology, 4(4), 365.

Perotto-Baldivieso, H. L., Meléndez-Ackerman, E., García, M. A., Leimgruber, P., Cooper, S. M., Martínez, A., ... & Pons, G. (2009). Spatial distribution, connectivity, and the influence of scale: habitat availability for the endangered Mona Island rock iguana. Biodiversity and Conservation, 18(4), 905-917.

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1984. Mona iguana recovery plan. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Atlanta, Georgia. 22pp.

Wiewandt, T.A. 1977. Ecology, behavior, and management of the Mona Island ground iguana, Cyclura stejnegeri. Ph.D. dessertation. Cornell Univ., Ithaca, New York.

Información adicional Oficina de Servicios Ecológicos del Caribe Dirección: PO Box 491, Boquerón, PR 00622 Teléfono: 787-851-7297 Fax: 787-851-7440 Internet: www.fws.gov/caribbean

AMENAZADA

Leatherback Sea Turtle

Dermochelys coriacea

Distribution

Family: Dermochelyidae Order: Chelonia (Testudinata)

Description The leatherback is the largest sea turtle species in the world. It can grow between 4 (1.2 meters) to 8 feet (2.4 meters) long, and weigh between 500 to 2,000 pounds (227 to 907 kilograms). It differs from other sea turtles in that it is the only one with a soft or flexible carapace. The surface of the leatherback’s carapace, or back shell, is composed of leathery skin; it has no plates or scutes. Its body is black or dark gray with small, pale, whitish spots. Its carapace has seven ridges that cross lengthwise. The carapace is wider at the front, and narrow in the back. The leatherback’s front flippers lack claws. This turtle’s mandibles are softer than other turtles’, which is why the leatherback usually feeds on soft organisms.

Biological Information Reproduction The leatherback takes approximately 16 years in reaching sexual maturity. After reaching sexual

maturity, the female leatherbacks travel to tropical waters every 2 or 3 years to nest.

Although it is believed that sea turtles return to nest in the beaches in which they were born, the mechanism through which they orient themselves to do so has not yet been explained. Breeding season lasts from February through July. Females can nest up to 11 times throughout one season, with an interval of 9 to 10 days in between each nesting event. Leatherbacks choose soft, sandy beaches with strong waves, deep access, and no obstacles in which to lay their eggs. Each nest can contain between 80 to 100 eggs, and the incubation period can last between 55 to 75 days. Once the incubation period is over, the hatchlings abandon the nest at night and head towards the seashore. The hatchlings’ sex is determined by the temperature prevalent during the incubation period.

High temperatures usually result in female hatchlings, while cooler temperatures often result in males.

Habitat This sea turtle is a pelagic species; that is to say, it spends the majority of its life in the open seas. The leatherback is the sea turtle with the largest migration.

Its hydrodynamic carapace and big front flippers allow it to travel vast distances. Leatherbacks can dive for more than 1,000 feet (305 meters) deep on average, and have been observed diving at a depth of over 3,900 feet (1,189 meters).

Diet As mentioned above, the leatherback’s mandibles are more delicate than other sea turtle species, and could get hurt if they attempt to eat hard foods. The leatherback feeds primarily on jellyfish, along with tunicates and other soft-bodied organisms. It also consumes a type of jellyfish most other animals try to avoid: the siphonophores, the most famous of which is the Portuguese Man o’ War.

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Distribution The leatherback sea turtle has the widest area of distribution among sea turtles. It can be found throughout the entire world, in waters both tropical and temperate. It is distributed throughout the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans. Turtles have been found as far north as the coast of British Columbia and the British Isles, and as far south as Australia, the Cape of Good Hope (South Africa), and Argentina.

In the Atlantic, the leatherback nests in beaches in Florida (US), St. Croix (USVI), and Puerto Rico. It also nests in Costa Rica; Panama, Colombia, Trinidad and Tobago Guyana, Surinam, French Guiana, and southern Brazil. In Puerto Rico, leatherbacks prefer the sandy beaches on the west, north and east shores on the island, with the shores seeing most of the nesting activity being the beaches of Fajardo, Maunabo and the island municipalities of Vieques and Culebra. Furthermore, nesting activity has been reported in: Yabucoa, Guánica, Isla de Mona, Mayagüez, Añasco, Rincón, Aguada, Aguadilla, Isabela, Hatillo, Arecibo, Barceloneta, Manatí, Vega Baja, Dorado, Toa Baja, Condado, Isla Verde and Loíza (Piñones).

Threats In Puerto Rico, nesting areas have decreased due to the continuous development of beaches and coastal areas, primarily the construction of residential projects, touristic destinations and industrial areas, as well as urban sprawl. On the other hand, light pollution on the beaches disorients the females that have come out of the sea to lay their eggs, as well as the hatchlings who are trying to reach the sea for the first time. Adult sea turtles have few natural predators. A natural predator for a full-grown leatherback might be large sharks.

However, hatchlings and juvenile sea turtles are prey for feral dogs and cats, marine birds, crabs, fish, and other predators. Nesting area vandalism, egg theft, and slaughtering of female turtles when they come out to lay eggs are other great threats this species faces.

Leatherbacks are also specifically vulnerable to the presence of plastics in the sea; they can easily confuse a plastic bag with a jellyfish, and consume the plastic.

Conservation Measures The leatherback sea turtle is protected by federal and state law, as are all other sea turtle species. The leatherback was listed under the Endangered Species

Act in 1970. Furthermore, an area in southwest St. Croix was designated as a critical habitat for the species in 1978.

The Endangered Species Act of 1973, as amended, prohibits the killing, harassing, trapping, purchasing or selling any species, as well as parts and products derived from the species. Although these clandestine activities are hard to detect and control, there has been a governmental unification, and efforts have been made to arrest, prosecute and fine these poachers.

Citizen education regarding the importance of observing the law and preserving the species that make up our natural heritage is vital for sea turtle protection and recovery.

To aid in the recovery of the species, the Puerto Rico Department of Natural and Environmental Resources (PRDNER), the United States Fish and Wildlife Service, private associations and citizens and volunteers have taken upon themselves the task of patrolling the beaches during nesting season. In this manner, they prevent the illegal capture and slaughter of nesting females as well as egg harvesting.

References Carr, Archie. 1952. Handbook of turtles. Cornell University Press, London.

Bustard, Robert. 1972. Sea turtles: their natural history and conservation. Taplinger Publishing Co., New York.

National Marine Fisheries Service and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1992. Recovery Plan for Leatherback Turtles in the U.S. Caribbean, Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico. National Marine Fisheries Service, Washington, D.C. Lutz, P.L., and J.A. Musick (eds.). 1997. The Biology of Sea Turtles. CRC Press, Inc., Boca Ratón, FL. Lutz, P.L., J.A. Musick, and J. Wyneken (eds.). 2003. The Biology of Sea Turtles, Volume 2. CRC Press, Inc., Boca Ratón, FL.

Additional Information Caribbean Ecological Services Field Office Address: PO Box 491, Boquerón, PR 00622 Telephone: 787-851-7297 / Fax: 787-851-7440 Internet: www.fws.gov/caribbean

ENDANGERED

Puerto Rican Boa Epicrates inornatus

Distribution

Biological Information

Family: Boidae Order: Squamata

Description The Puerto Rican boa is the largest snake found in Puerto Rico. An endemic species, it can grow up to seven feet (approx. 2 meters) in length, although some people claim to have seen even larger specimens.

Their coloring varies; it can be light or dark brown, gray, or even black. They also have a blackish, spotted or barred pattern along their dorsal areas, and their ventral area is blackish.

The boa is not venomous, and does not attack human beings. This boa is actually timid and, upon detecting human presence nearby, its first and natural reaction is to escape. Although it is generally docile, some adults might try to bite. This conduct, however, only occurs when bothered, or when it feels threatened.

Reproduction Most of the snakes in the Boidae family have two structures called spurs, one at each side of the cloacal opening. These spurs are actually the vestigial remnants of hind limbs. The snake’s sexual organs are found in this cloacal region. The male vibrates his spurs along the female’s body to encourage her to adopt a posture appropriate for copulation. Sometimes, they will form a reproductive aggregation consisting of several males and one female. With these snakes, it is very difficult to distinguish the sexes. Although in general terms the male is smaller than the female, the best way to identify the sex of the snake is to verify the existence of the hemipenis. This is the name given to the male reproductive organ found in snake and lizard species.

Since the hemipenis is not noticeable at first glance, reptile and amphibian specialists (herpetologists) have to manipulate the snake in order to detect the hemipenis and thus detect the sex of the animal.

Courtship can last several hours, and the boas might copulate for several hours or even a full day.

Courtship and copulation tends to occur between February and May. Contrary to the majority of reptiles, this boa does not lay and incubate eggs; but rather, it is ovoviviparous. This means that it gives birth to fully developed young. The gestation period lasts between 152 to 193 days. The snakes produce an average of 18 live young, and these can measure 16 inches (approx. 41 cm) on average.

Habitat Nearly half of Puerto Rico, 46.3%, is considered potential habitat for the Puerto Rican boa. Of all this

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potential habitat, only 9% is protected. Although this species has been reported throughout every ecosystem in Puerto Rico, it is most commonly sighted in the karst areas in northern Puerto Rico. They can also be found in the mountainous areas of Puerto Rico, and, less frequently, in the dry areas of the south.

road construction can also prove fatal to boas attempting to cross the roads.

• Natural predators such as the red-tailed hawk (Buteo jamaicensis), the broad-winged hawk (Buteo platypterus brunnecens), the pearly-eyed thrasher (Margarops fuscatus), the red-legged thrush (Turdus plumbeus), and the Puerto Rican lizard cuckoo (Coccyzus vieilloti).

• Potential exotic predators such as: feral and domestic cats (Felis catus), and the small Asian mongoose (Herpestes javanicus).

Diet Young boas feed on lizards, amphibians, insects, and other small vertebrates. Adult snakes feed primarily on rats, but can also consume small birds, lizards, and bats. To hunt bats, boas have been known to hang in • Potential parasites such as fleas (Amblyoma wait near cave entrances. Boas use constriction as their spp., Boophilus spp.) and mites (Ornithodorus preferred method of trapping prey. This means that portorricensis). These mostly affect individuals boas coil their bodies around their prey and constrict, inhabiting livestock pasture areas. or squeeze, until the prey is killed by asphyxiation.

The boa consumes its prey whole, usually starting by • Persecution, harassing and death caused by humans the head. Because their jaws can temporarily dislocate, boas can swallow prey much larger than the width of • Competition with exotic introduced species their bodies. They are considered a beneficial species, (i.e., red-tailed boa [Boa constrictor]) since they help control undesirable animal populations by hunting mice and rats. On occasion, they might Conservation Measures consume small domestic animals, such as poultry and The Puerto Rican boa was included in the federal small rabbits. endangered species list in 1970, and the recovery plan for this species was written in 1986. Recently, Distribution there have been various investigations that show new There is a high probability of finding this species throughout all of Puerto Rico’s municipalities. information regarding the biology and distribution of However, its presence has not yet been documented in the Puerto Rican boa. The proper knowledge about all municipalities. the species’ distribution and abundance helps in the formulation of strategies made to protect them.

Threats

The Puerto Rican boa faces several threats. Some are natural, but many others are human-related. Here, we provide a short list of the threats this species faces: • The biggest threat to this species is the destruction and modification of their habitat for touristic, agricultural and residential purposes.

This involves, as a direct consequence, the following actions: • Soil removal – The machines used to extract and move soil also crush, cut and kill Puerto Rican boas.

• Habitat fragmentation – Their habitat becomes split in patches. The interaction between individuals and their survival is affected because of this. They become more vulnerable. Habitat fragmentation due to

In 2011, the need to study this species was identified.

There are currently many investigations underway, meant to evaluate the species’ distribution, estimate their relative population, and refine the protocols used for relocating individuals. Recent studies highlight the importance of preserving the cavern systems that the species inhabits, and the ecosystems related to these same systems, since protecting them will have the added benefit of protecting a great portion of genetic diversity this species represents to Puerto Rican populations.

The Endangered Species Act of 1973, as amended, prohibits the killing, harassing, trapping, purchasing or selling any species, as well as parts and products derived from the species.

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Recommendations People should adopt a positive and sensible posture towards this species, one of our own native creatures.

As with all Puerto Rican snakes, the boa has an unjustified reputation of being dangerous, which is not true. Many people react impulsively upon finding one of these boas, killing them when they are harmless and pose no threat to humans.

References Bird-Picó, F.J. 1994. Final report on Epicrates inornatus survey throughout Puerto Rico. Cooperative agreement between the U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service and the Department of Biology, University of Puerto Rico, Mayagüez Campus. Cooperative agreement #14-16-0004-92-958. 42pp.

Joglar, R.L. 2005. Reptiles, p. 99 –190. In: Joglar, R.L. (Ed.) Biodiversidad de Puerto Rico: Vertebrados terrestres y ecosistemas. Serie de Historia Natural. Editorial Instituto de Cultura Puertorriqueña, San Juan, P.R. 563pp.

Joglar, R.L., et al., 2007. Conserving the Puerto Rican herpetofauna. Applied Herpetology 4: 327-345.

Rivero, J.A. 1978. Los anfibios y reptiles de Puerto Rico.

Editorial Universitaria, San Juan, Puerto Rico.

Rivero, J.A. y D. Seguí-Crespo. 1992. Anfibios y reptiles en nuestro folclore. Imprenta San Rafael, Quebradillas, P.R.

Puente-Rolón, A.R. 1999. Foraging behavior, home range, movement, and activity patterns and habitat characterization of the Puerto Rican boa (Epicrates inornatus) at Mata de Plátano Natural Reserve, Arecibo, Puerto Rico. M.S. thesis, University of Puerto Rico, Mayagüez Campus. 62pp.

Puente-Rolón, A.R. and F.J. Bird-Picó. 2004. Foraging behavior, home range, movements and activity patterns of Epicrates inornatus (Boidae) at Mata de Plátano Reserve in Arecibo, Puerto Rico. Caribbean Journal of Science 40(3):343-352.

Puente-Rolón, A.R., Reynolds R.G., and Revell L.J. (2013).

Preliminary Genetic Analysis Supports Cave Populations as Targets for Conservation in the Endemic Endangered Puerto Rican Boa (Boidae: Epicrates inornatus). PLoS ONE 8(5): e6399 USFWS. 2011. Puerto Rican Boa (Epicrates inornatus) 5-Year Review. USFWS, Caribbean Ecological Services Field Office, Boquerón PR. 27 pp. Available at: http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/ five_year_review/doc3849.pdf Wunderle, J.M., et al. 2004. Spatial Ecology of Puerto Rican Boas (Epicrates inornatus). Biotropica 36(4):555-571.U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1986. Puerto Rican Boa Recovery Plan. Atlanta, Georgia. 21pp.

Additional Information

Oficina de Servicios Ecológicos del Caribe Dirección: PO Box 491, Boquerón, PR 00622 Teléfono: 787-851-7297 / Fax: 787-851-7440 Internet: www.fws.gov/caribbean

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Virgin Islands Tree Boa

Epicrates monensis granti

Distribution

Family: Boidae Order: Squamata

Description The Virgin Islands (VI) boa is a native arboreal snake that can be easily identified within its range, since it is the only native snake with a mottled pattern on its skin. The coloring on adult snakes is a light brown or tan, with irregular black-edged dark brown spots, while its ventral area is cream colored, with grayish brown spots. Juvenile snakes are light gray with dark blotches, and change into the adult coloration as they grow. The VI boa can reach 41 inches (104 centimeters) in length, from snout to vent. This species is not venomous, and is harmless to people.

Biological Information Reproduction Like many other snakes in the Epicrates genus, courtship and mating occur from February through May. The pregnant females use thermoregulation

during the gestation period, which can last up to 150 days. Thermoregulation is the process through which the snake regulates its body temperature within certain parameters, even when the environment around it presents a different temperature than needed. Birthing usually occurs from August through October. The VI boa is ovoviviparous; that is to say, they give birth to live young. The young are born in litters comprised of 2 to 10 individuals, depending on the mother’s size, and are totally independent after birth. There is no parental care. It is believed that females reproduce every other year, and the young take three years to reach sexual maturity. The VI boa’s lifespan is between 10 to 20 years.

Habitat VI boas usually live in forest or xerophytic (dry) scrubland, characterized by sharp inclines and rocky, poorly fertile soil. Vegetation is generally comprised of secondary growth, mostly deciduous trees (trees that shed their leaves at a certain timeof the year) with coriaceous leaves (that is to say, leaves that have a hard, glossy surface), and small succulents (plants which preserve water in the roots, stems or leaves) and spiny scrublands found in dry, subtropical forests. This is also known to occur on low-profile islets; that is to say, islands with low rises, and cays with fossilized dunes and simple vegetation. As with the majority of boas, the VI boa is nocturnal, although it can often be

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seen basking during the day. However, it usually hides under rocks and fallen tree trunks during the day.

in captivity so as to expand the range of the activities implemented to preserve and recover the VI boa.

Diet The VI boa is a predator, which mostly preys on lizards, hunting them by sliding along tree limbs. It also feeds on mice, eggs and young birds and small iguanas. Since it is a constrictor snake, the VI boa wraps its body around its prey, squeezing until the prey is asphyxiated before swallowing it headfirst.

The Endangered Species Act of 1973, as amended, prohibits the killing, harassing, trapping, purchasing or selling any species, as well as parts and products derived from the species.

Distribution The VI boa is considered a species endemic to Puerto Rico, St. Thomas (USVI), and Tortola Island (BVI).

In actuality, there are six stable populations. In Puerto Rico, the species exists in Diablo Cay, Ratones Cay, Río Grande, and Culebra. Recently, the boa has also been reported in the Municipality of Humacao. In the USVI, the species exists in St. Thomas and Stephen Cay. The species also inhabits Tortola Island (BVI).

Threats The main factors contributing to the diminishing VI boa population are: • Loss and modification of their habitat as a result of agriculture and development.

• Limited distribution • Fragmented habitat • Depredation from animals such as: • yellow-crowned night heron (Nyctanassa violacea), • black rat (Rattus rattus), • Norwegian rat (Rattus norvegicus), y • Asian mongoose (Herpestes auropunctatus)

Conservation Measures The VI boa was included in the federal endangered species list in 1979. It is also included in Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES). In 2009, the United States Fish and Wildlife Service announced that, having completed a five-year survey about the VI boa, it was recommended to change their classification from ‘endangered species’ to ‘threatened species’.

However, the ‘threatened’ classification allows greater flexibility for investigating boas and breeding them

Some Recommended Practices There is still much work to be done before we can say the VI boa is recovered. The viability of their populations needs to be studied to determine how many additional individuals are needed to make up a healthy, sustainable population. We still do not have much knowledge about the species’ distribution, nor how abundant they are within their habitat.

References Endangered Species Act of 1973 (16 U.S.C. 1531-1544, 87 Stat.

884), según enmendada – Ley Pública 93-205, aprobada en diciembre 28, 1973.

Nellis, D.W., R.L. Norton, and W.P. MacLean. 1983. On the biogeography of the Virgin Islands boa, Epicrates monensis granti. Journal of Herpetology, 17(4): pp. 413-417.

Rivero, J. A. 1998. Los anfibios y reptiles de Puerto Rico.

Editorial de la Universidad de Puerto Rico. San Juan, Puerto Rico. pp. 433.

Tolson, P.J., M.A. García, and J.J. Pierce. 2008. Re-introduction of the Virgin Islands boa to the Puerto Rico Bank. Special issue of Re-introduction News No. 27-2008.pp. 76.

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1986, Virgin Islands Tree Boa Recovery Plan, Atlanta, GA. 27pp.

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 2009, Virgin Islands Tree Boa (Epicrates monensis granti) 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation, Atlanta, GA. 25pp.

Additional Information

Caribbean Ecological Services Field Office Address: PO Box 491, Boquerón, PR 00622 Telephone: 787-851-7297 / Fax: 787-851-7440 Internet: www.fws.gov/caribbean

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Mona Boa

Epicrates monensis monensis

Distribution Habitat The subtropical dry forest, coastal plains, and coastal shrubbery are the species’ preferred habitat. It can only be found among shrub branches or beneath rocks, structures, and vegetation that will help regulate its body’s temperature.

Diet This is a nocturnal snake that feeds mostly on lizards, and mice.

Family: Boidae Order: Squamata

Description The Mona boa is a small snake that can reach a length of a little over 3 feet (1 meter). Its body is cream or light brown, with dark brown blotches on its back.

The ventral area is cream colored. This species is much more slender and smaller than the Puerto Rican Boa (Epicrates inornatus). The scientific community is of the opinion that this snake has always been rare (uncommon).

Biological Information Very little is known about the biology of this species.

Reproduction Unlike other snake species, the Mona boa does not lay eggs. It actually gives birth to fully developed offspring.

Distribution This species is unique to the Mona Island Nature Reserve of Puerto Rico; that is to say, it is a species endemic to Mona.

Threats For conservation purposes, the Puerto Rico Department of Natural and Environmental Resources is responsible for managing the Mona Island Nature Reserve. The species is currently threatened by exotic predators like feral cats and goats. The goats feed on the native vegetation and modify the forest composition and structure, affecting the Mona Island Boa’s habitat.

Conservation Measures The species was listed under the Endangered Species Act in 1978. Mona Island is designated as a nature reserve, under the jurisdiction of the Puerto Rico Department of Natural and Environmental Resources.

Lawful controlled huntings of the goats and pigs is a strategy used to reduce the population of these harmful species, and therefore reduce their impact on the boa.

Establishing mechanisms so that visitors to Mona

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Island have the chance to enjoy the resources the island has to offer while learning about the responsibilities of protecting them is of the utmost importance. International zoos have undertaken efforts to initiate a captive breeding program for this species.

The Endangered Species Act of 1973, as amended, prohibits the killing, harassing, trapping, purchasing or selling any species, as well as parts and products derived from the species.

References Díaz, C. A. D. 1984. Recovery Plan for the Mona Boa: Epicrates Monensis Monensis. US Fish and Wildlife Service.

Tolson, P. J. 1991. Conservation status of Epicrates monensis (Serpentes Boidae) on the Puerto Rico Bank. Status y distribución de los anfibios y reptiles de Puerto Rico. Publ. Cien. Misc, (1), 11-63.

Rivero, J. 1978. Los anfibios y reptiles de Puerto Rico. Editorial Universitaria, San Juan, Puerto Rico. 150 pp.

Additional Information

Caribbean Ecological Services Field Office Address: PO Box 491, Boquerón, PR 00622 Telephone: 787-851-7297 Fax: 787-851-7440 Internet: www.fws.gov/caribbean

Tolson, P. J., García, M. A., & Ellsworth, C. L. 2007. Habitat use by the Mona Boa (Epicrates monensis monensis) on the Isla Mona, West Indies. Biology of the Boas and Pythons. Henderson, RW, and R. Powell (Eds.). Eagle Mountain Publishing, Eagle Mountain, Utah, USA, 118-126.

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Hawksbill Sea Turtle Eretmochelys imbricata

Distribution every few minutes. Sea turtles can dive and reach great depths. During particularly long dives, whether they are sleeping or resting, these turtles can reduce their oxygen consumption; in this manner, they can remain underwater for several hours without drowning.

Family: Chelonidae Order: Chelonia (Testudinata)

Description The hawksbill sea turtle is one of the four sea turtles that visit our tropical waters. It can grow to a length of 3 feet (approx. 1 meter), and weigh 300 pounds (136 kilograms). Its shell is oval-shaped and elongated, and it is the most beautiful of sea turtle shells. The shell is made up of brown and yellow scutes, or plates, that overlap each other like roof tiles; that is to say, imbricate. Its head and flippers are yellow with brown spots. The hawksbill sea turtle is the only sea turtle that has two pairs of prefrontal scales between the eyes, and their upper jaw is sharp like a hawk’s. This turtle, like all other sea turtles, cannot hide its head or its extremities under its shell.

Biological Information The hawksbill, like all other marine and terrestrial turtles, is a reptile; it has lungs and breathes air, which means that it must come to the surface to breathe

Reproduction Sea turtles take many years to reach sexual maturity.

In the Caribbean, it is estimated that hawksbill turtles take 20 years or more to reach sexual maturity and begin reproducing. Nesting season for hawksbill sea turtles in Puerto Rico and the Caribbean begins in April and ends by November. The majority of nesting events, however, happens during August. Studies have shown that hawksbill sea turtles can nest several times and in different locations during the same season, with an interval of 14 days between each nesting event.

Like other sea turtles, the hawksbill nests during the night, and can lay up to 140 eggs, although there have been nests in which 200 eggs have been found. The incubation period lasts approximately 60 days.

Habitat The hawksbill can usually be found in rocky areas, coral reefs and shallow coasts (less than 65 feet [approx. 20 meters] deep). Females dig their nests under beachside vegetation, unlike other sea turtles, which prefer to make their nests in bare areas in the sand.

Diet The hawksbill sea turtle lives near coral reefs, where it feeds primarily on sea sponges, algae, sea urchins, mollusks, shrimp and squid.

Distribution This sea turtle is widely distributed across the tropical

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waters of the world, and especially those near coral reefs and rocky formations along the shoreline. In Puerto Rico, this turtle species nests in the beaches of Guánica, Añasco, Rincón, Isabela, Arecibo, Barceloneta, Dorado, Humacao, Patillas, Yabucoa, Culebra, Vieques, Isla de Mona and Caja de Muertos Island.

Threats Adult sea turtles have few natural predators. A natural predator for the species could be a large shark. Newly hatched sea turtles, however, have many predators: dogs, sea birds, crabs, fish, and other animals feed on the hatchlings. The hawksbill is an endangered species, due to their being captured as contraband and slaughtered for their beautiful shells, which are then illegally exported as raw material for jewelrymaking purposes. Other threats include consumption of their eggs and flesh, and occasionally, use of their skin. The continuous development, modification, and illumination of beaches and places near their nesting areas keeps the turtles from using the beach to their advantage during their nesting season. The bright lighting on the beach at night can disorient females who are out to lay eggs, and can lead the hatchlings away from the sea and cause their deaths before they ever even reach the sea for the first time.

Conservation Measures The hawksbill sea turtle is protected by federal and state law, as are all other sea turtle species. The hawksbill was listed under the Endangered Species Act in 1970.

The beach areas in Mona, and the Resaca, Brava and Larga beaches in the Culebra municipality along with the adjacent cays (the beaches in Culebrita and the beaches on the south of Cayo Norte) were designated critical habit for the species as well. The habitat designation made by USFWS goes from the average high-tide mark, to 150 meters inland. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) has also designated the waters around Mona and Monito islands as critical habitat.

using nets, slaughtering them for their meat and shell.

Although these clandestine activities are hard to detect and control, there has been a governmental unification, and efforts have been made to arrest, prosecute and fine these poachers. Citizen education regarding the importance of observing the law and preserving the species that make up our natural heritage is vital for sea turtle protection and recovery.

To aid in the recovery of the species, the Department of Natural and Environmental Resources (DNER) of Puerto Rico, the United States Fish and Wildlife Service, private associations and citizens and volunteers have taken upon themselves the task of patrolling the beaches during nesting season. In this manner, they prevent the illegal capture and slaughter of nesting females as well as egg harvesting.

References Bustard, Robert. 1972. Sea turtles: their natural history and conservation. Taplinger Publishing Co., New York.

Carr, Archie. 1952. Handbook of turtles. Cornell University Press, London.

Lutz, P.L., and J.A. Musick (eds.). 1997. The Biology of Sea Turtles. CRC Press, Inc., Boca Raton, FL. Lutz, P.L., J.A. Musick, and J. Wyneken (eds.). 2003. The Biology of Sea Turtles, Volume 2. CRC Press, Inc., Boca Raton, FL. National Marine Fisheries Service and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1993. Recovery plan for hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata) in the U.S. Caribbean, Atlantic, and Gulf of Mexico.

National Marine Fisheries Service, St. Petersburg, FL. National Marine Fisheries Service and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 2007. Hawksbill sea turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata) 5-year review: summary and evaluation.

Additional Information Caribbean Ecological Services Field Office Address: PO Box 491, Boquerón, PR 00622 Telephone: 787-851-7297 / Fax: 787-851-7440 Internet: www.fws.gov/caribbean

The Endangered Species Act of 1973, as amended, prohibits the killing, harassing, trapping, purchasing or selling any species, as well as parts and products derived from the species. However, there are still people who illegally harvest the eggs, kill the females when they come ashore to lay their eggs, and capture them while in the sea

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Monito Gecko

Sphaerodactylus micropithecus

PR

Distribution Diet It is assumed the geckos feed on small invertebrates such as insects and spiders.

However, not much specific information has been gathered regarding their feeding habits.

Distribution This gecko is only found in Monito Island. This island is part of the Mona and Monito Islands Nature Reserve of Puerto Rico, and is located southwest of Puerto Rico’s mainland. It is 3 miles (5 kilometers) northwest of Mona Island. Both islands are located between Puerto Rico and the Dominican Republic.

Family: Gekkonidae Order: Squamata

Description The Monito gecko is the only species of the Sphaerodactylus genus found in Monito Island. It is a tiny reptile, usually measuring an inch and a half (3.5 centimeters) long. It has a gray body, a dark brown tail, and has two dark patches with a white dot on its neck. Juveniles are darker-colored than adults.

Biological Information Reproduction Not much is known about the reproductive biology of this species, but it is believed their mating season lasts from November through March. The exact number of surviving individuals is unknown. In the last survey performed in May 2014, 23 individuals were found.

Habitat The gecko can be found in leaf litter on the ground, and it hides in small crevasses and holes in Monito Island.

Threats The destruction and modification of habitat by humans and exotic foreign species introduced to Monito Island, such as rats and mice, represent the biggest threats to the species.

Conservation Measures The species was listed under the Endangered Species Act in 1982. Monito Island is currently designated as a critical habitat for the Monito gecko. Due to controlled access to Monito Island and other protective measures set in place by the Department of Natural and Environmental Resources (DNER) of Puerto Rico, threats have been reduced. The DNER has implemented a rat eradication program in Monito, with the intention of augmenting the survival rates of the Monito gecko. Visitors are forbidden from visiting Monito Island without previous authorization, and it is given only to scientific researchrelated projects.

The Endangered Species Act of 1973, as amended, prohibits the killing, harassing, trapping, purchasing or

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selling any species, as well as parts and products derived from the species.

Recommendations

Gould WA, Alarcón C, Fevold B, Jiménez ME, Martinuzzi S, Potts G, Solórzano M, and Ventosa E. 2007. Puerto Rico Gap Analysis Project – Final Report. USGS, Moscow, ID and the USDA Forest Service International Institute of Tropical Forestry, Río Piedras, PR. 159 pp. and 8 appendices.

In order to evaluate whether the species needs more protection or if their population has improved or become stable, further studies regarding the number of individuals in the populations and the biology and habits of the species needs further research.

Rivero, J.A. 1978. The amphibians and reptiles of Puerto Rico. Univ. of Puerto Rico. Editorial Universitaria, Rio Piedras, Puerto Rico.

References

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1986. Recovery plan for the Monito Gecko (Sphaerodactylus micropithecus). U.S Georgia. 18 pp.

Dodd, K. C., & Ortiz, P. 1983. An endemic gecko in the Caribbean. Oryx, 17(3), 119-121.

García, M. A., Diez, C. E., & Álvarez, A. O. 2002. The eradication of Rattus rattus from Monito Island, West Indies.

Turning the tide: the eradication of invasive species. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK, IUCN SSC Invasive Species Specialist Group, 116-119.

Rolle, F.J. et al. 1964. Faunal notes on Monito Island, Puerto Rico. Carib. J. Sci. 4: 321-322

Additional Information Caribbean Ecological Services Field Office Address: PO Box 491, Boquerón, PR 00622 Telephone: 787-851-7297 / Fax: 787-851-7440 Internet: www.fws.gov/caribbean

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Puerto Rican Sharp-Shinned Hawk

Accipiter striatus venator

Distribution Habitat The Puerto Rican sharp-shinned hawk in an endemic species in Puerto Rico, and it is usually found in forested areas associated to the life zones known as subtropical montane rain forests and moist subtropical forests (e.g. cloud forests, Sierran palm, caimitillo-granadillo and tabonuco [candlewood]).

Family: Accipitridae Order: Falconiformes

Description The Puerto Rican sharp-shinned hawk is a bird of prey that measure approximately 11 to 13 inches (28 to 33 centimeters) in length. Adults are colored slate gray on their backs, and their ventral area has reddish-blond stripes. Juveniles are light brown instead of gray, and their breasts are densely striped. When in flight, this bird demonstrates short wings with rounded corners, and a straight, narrow tail. The Puerto Rican sharpshinned hawk flies by alternating between beating its wings and gliding.

Biological Information Reproduction This bird builds its nest out of twigs, and usually builds them in tree canopies. Females usually lay three white, spotted eggs. Nesting season begins in March, and lasts through July.

Diet This species primarily feeds on small birds such as: the Puerto Rican bullfinch (Loxigilla portoricensis), bananaquits (Coereba flaveola), and Puerto Rican tanagers (Nesospingus speculiferus).

Distribution The only five existing populations of the Puerto Rican sharp-shinned hawk are found in the mountain forests of El Yunque National Forest and the State Forests in: Maricao, Toro Negro, Guilarte and Carite. In 1992, it was estimated that the populations amounted to about 150 individuals, distributed among the territories mentioned. In surveys performed in 2012 and 2013, however, have shown a significant decrease in individuals in the forests.

Threats Widespread habitat destruction and modification are the main factors affecting the number and distribution of the Puerto Rican sharp-shinned hawk. The extremely limited distribution of this species could be the result of the fragmentation of the forested areas which have taken place during this century. This bird has suffered a population decline of about 60% in Carite Forest, and 93% in El Yunque National Forest.

The cause of this sharp decline is as yet unknown to scientists.

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Among the threats impacting this species, scientists have identified: managing practices and harvesting of forest wood, the construction of fences and roads cutting across the forests, the construction of recreational facilities, the increase in use of the forests for recreational purposes, and the possibility of poaching occurring. Parasitic predation by Philornis genera flies poses a mortality risk for hatchlings, as identified in the Maricao population. The Puerto Rican sharp-shinned hawk is also highly susceptible to natural disturbances like strong tropical storms and hurricanes, as these events disturb and modify their environment. However, the main problem the Puerto Rican sharp-shinned hawk faces is the low density and limited distribution of individuals. This makes the species extremely vulnerable to the loss of even a single individual.

Conservation Measures The Puerto Rican sharp-shinned hawk was included in the Endangered Species list in 1994, and a recovery plan for the species was written in 1997. The prime measure that must be taken to preserve this bird is the protection of the remaining individuals and their habitat. Due to the fact that it can be found in public areas, the implementation of adequate management plans is of paramount importance in order to ensure the survival of this subspecies in Puerto Rican forests.

The Endangered Species Act of 1973, as amended, prohibits the killing, harassing, trapping, purchasing or selling any species, as well as parts and products derived from the species.

References Cruz, A. and C.A. Delannoy. 1986. Status, breeding biology and conservation needs of the Puerto Rican sharp-shinned hawk, Accipiter striatus venator. Final report submitted to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service as specified in work contract No. 14-160004-82-031.

Delannoy, C.A. and A. Cruz. 1991. Philornis parasitism and nestling survival of the Puerto Rican Sharp-shinned Hawk. In J.E. Loye and M. Zuk (eds.), Bird-parasite interactions, ecology, evolution and behavior, pp. 93-103. Oxford University Press, New York, 406pp.

Delannoy, C.A. 1997. Status of the broad-winged hawk and sharp-shinned hawk in Puerto Rico. Caribb. J. Sciences 33: 21-33.

Delannoy, C.A. 1992. Status surveys of the Puerto Rican sharpshinned hawk (Accipiter striatus venator) and Puerto Rican broad-winged hawk (Buteo platypterus brunnescens). Final report submitted to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service as specified in work contract No. 14-16-0004-91-031.

Departamento de Recursos Naturales y Ambientales. 2006. Plan de Manejo Forestal y de Vida Silvestre para el Bosque Estatal de Río Abajo, Arecibo y Utuado, Puerto Rico. (Forest Management and Wildlife Plan for the Rio Abajo Commonwealth Forest, Arecibo and Utuado, Puerto Rico), Departamento de Recursos Naturales y Ambientales. 433 pp.

Ewel, J.L. & J.L. Whitmore. 1973. The ecological life zones of Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands. USDA Forest Service.

Res. Pap. ITF-18.

Raffaele, H.A.1989.A guide of the birds of Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. Princeton University press, New Jersey Tossas, A. G. 2006. Effects of Hurricane Georges on the resident avifauna of Maricao State Forest, southwestern Puerto Rico.

Caribb. J. Sci. 42:81-87 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1994. Endangered and threatened wildlife and plants; determination of endangered status for the Puerto Rican broad-winged hawk and the Puerto Rican sharpshinned hawk. Federal Register Vol. 59 (174): 46710-46715.

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1997. Puerto Rican broad-winged hawk and Puerto Rican sharp-shinned hawk (Buteo platypterus brunnescens and Accipiter striatus venator) Recovery Plan. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Atlanta, Georgia. 23pp.

Additional Information Oficina de Servicios Ecológicos del Caribe Dirección: PO Box 491, Boquerón, PR 00622 Teléfono: 787-851-7297 Fax: 787-851-7440 Internet: www.fws.gov/caribbean

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Yellow-Shouldered Blackbird

Agelaius xanthomus

Distribution August. The nest’s structure is cup-shaped, formed out of dry grass or algae, and lined with soft vegetable matter. These nests are built in trees, often in aggregation, to protect from predators. The incubation and nesting is done solely by the females. However, both parents work together to feed the hatchlings.

Familia: Icteridae Orden: Passeriformes

Description The yellow-shouldered blackbird (YSBL), also known as the mariquita de Puerto Rico or capitán, is a glossy black bird with bright yellow spots on the shoulder of each wing. Adults reach approximately 8 inches (20 centimeters) in length. Females are slightly smaller than males. The hatchlings are similar to the adults, with a duller black color.

Biological Information This species is one of the nine species included in the Agelaius genus. There are two subspecies: Agelaius xanthomus xanthomus, known only on Puerto Rico’s main island and on Vieques, and Agelaius xanthomus monensis, found only on the Mona and Monito Islands.

Reproduction The YSBL breeding season lasts from April through

Habitat The YSBL primarily nests in black mangroves (Avicennia germinans) and coconut palms (Cocos nucifera). It also nests in: West Indian locust (Hymenaea courbaril), red mangroves (Rhizophora mangle), Puerto Rico royal palm (Roystonea borinquena), and oxhorn bucida (Bucida buceras), among others. The subspecies of Mona and Monito Islands make their nests in exposed cavities along the limestone cliffs. Before and after breeding and nesting season, the YSBL is frequently observed in mangroves and coastal scrub vegetation harboring American carob (Prosopis pallida), oxhorn bucida (Bucida buceras) and guaiacwood (Guaiacum officinale).

Diet The YSBL is omnivorous, feeding on both animal and vegetable matter alike. It may also be classified as an arboreal insectivore.

Distribution The YSBL is an endemic species; that is to say, it only exists in Puerto Rico. In the past, this species was abundant throughout the Island, and has been documented in Adjunstas, Aguadilla, Arecibo, Añasco, Barranquitas, Cabo Rojo, Caguas, Carolina, Cataño, Cayey, Ceiba, Ciales, Cidra, Coamo, Fajardo, Florida, Guánica, Guayama, Guayanilla, Hormigueros, Juncos,

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Lajas, Lares, Loíza, Mayagüez, Mona, Monito, Naguabo, Salinas, San Germán, San Juan, Utuado, Vieques, Peñuelas, Ponce, Rincón, Río Grande, San Sebastián, Santa Isabel and Yauco.

However, in the 1970’s there was a very sharp decline in populations, with approximately 2,400 individuals left in the wild throughout the entire island. This amount was concentrated in three main populations: the yellow-shouldered blackbirds in southwest Puerto Rico (Boquerón Commonwealth Forest and La Parguera in Lajas), the group in southeast Puerto Rico (Former Roosevelt Roads Naval Station, RRNS), and the population in Mona and Monito islands. At present, the Boquerón Commonwealth Forest, the southern region of Puerto Rico (Salinas and Guayama) and Mona and Monito islands host the largest YSBL populations.

Threats The major threats to the YSBL are: • Destruction or modification of coastal forests for agricultural, residential, and tourism development.

• Predators: • Pearly-eyed thrasher (Margarops fuscatus) • American kestrel (Falco sparverius) • Merlin (Falco columbarius) • Red-tailed hawk (Buteo jamaicensis) • Small Indian mongoose (Herpestes auropunctatus) • Green iguana (Iguana iguana) • Rats (Rattus rattus) • Feral cat (Felis catus) • Brood parasitism: • Shiny cowbird (Molothrus bonariensis) – This species performs brood parasitism; that is to say, it lays its eggs in the YSBL’s nest, affecting the success rate of the blackbirds.

• Parasites that feed on chicks and adults, sometimes cause nest abandonment by the adults, increasing chick mortality: • Mites (Ornithonyssus bursa and Androlaelaps casalis) • Lice (Philopterus agelaii, Machaerilaemus sp., and Myrsidea sp.)

• Diseases: • Avian pox – This virus causes lesions that affect the vision, breathing and feeding processes of affected birds.

Conservation Measures The yellow-shouldered blackbird was included in the Endangered Species list in 1976. Critical habitat for this species was designated in southwestern Puerto Rico, the municipality of San Germán, the former RRNS in the municipality of Ceiba, and Mona Island.

The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service wrote the first Recovery Plan for the YSBL in 1983, with an updated version in 1996.

Within the current range of the YSBL there are at least four areas protected in perpetuity: La Parguera Natural Reserve, Boquerón Commonwealth Forest, Cabo Rojo National Wildlife Refuge, and Boquerón Wildlife Refuge, and the wetland forest in the former RRNS. The YSBL Recovery Project was established in 1984.

Since its inception, the project has installed numerous artificial nesting structures for the species. These structures have the purpose of reducing nest predation and improving monitoring activities. During the 1985 breeding season, the project only had two nests in artificial structures. To date, that number has reached 255. Nearly 30 years after initiating this project, these nests have produced approximately 7,326 fledglings (young birds that have left the nest).

The Endangered Species Act of1973, as amended, prohibits the killing, harassing, trapping, purchasing or selling any species, as well as parts and products derived from the species.

References Departamento de Recursos Naturales y Ambientales de Puerto Rico. http://www.drna.gobierno.pr/oficinas/arn/recursosvivientes/ negociado-de-pesca-y-vida-silvestre/division-de-recursosterrestres-1/proyecto_mariquita/mariquita Lewis, A. R., J. A. Cruz-Burgos, and F. J. Vilella. 1999.

Movements, activity patterns and habitat use of the endangered Yellow-shouldered Blackbird (Agelaius xanthomus xanthomus [Sclater]). Final report submitted to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Caribbean Field Office. 106 pp.

López-Ortiz, R., E. A. Ventosa-Febles, L. R. Reitsma, D. Hengstenberg, and W. Deluca.2002. Increasing nest success in the yellow-shouldered blackbird (Agelaius xanthomus) in southwest Puerto Rico. Biological Conservation 108: 259-263.

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López-Ortiz, R., E. A. Ventosa-Febles, K. R. Ramos-Álvarez, R. Medina-Miranda, andA. Cruz. 2006. Reduction in host use suggests host specificity in individual shiny cowbirds (Molothrus bonariensis). Ornitología Neotropical 17: 259-269.

López-Ortiz, R., E. A. Ventosa-Febles, K. R. Ramos-Álvarez, R. Medina-Miranda, andA. Dragoni. 2008. Nesting macrohabitat preferences of the Yellow-shouldered blackbird, Agelaius xanthomus. Department of Natural and Environmental Resources, unpublished report. 19 pp.

Medina-Miranda R., K. R. Ramos-Álvarez, and R. López-Ortiz.

2006. Annual Progress report. Puerto Rico Endangered Species Program ES 1-14, Study II. Yellow-shouldered Blackbird Recovery Actions. Report submitted to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Caribbean Field Office. 5 pp. 25 Medina-Miranda R., K. R. Ramos-Álvarez, and R. López-Ortiz.

2007. Annual Progress report. Puerto Rico Endangered Species Program ES 1-14, Study II. Yellow-shouldered Blackbird Recovery Actions. Report submitted to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Caribbean Field Office. 6 pp.

Medina-Miranda, R. 2008. Estrategias anti-parásitos en la mariquita de Puerto Rico (Agelaius xanthomus) y el canario de mangle (Dendroica petechia): dentro y fuera del área de manejo del tordo lustroso (Molothrus bonariensis). MS Thesis, Department of Biology, University of Puerto Rico, Mayagüez Campus. 41 pp.

Puerto Rico Department of Natural and Environmental Resources. 2009. Designación de hábitat crítico natural para la mariquita de Puerto Rico (Agelaius xanthomus).198 pp.

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1996. Yellow-shouldered Blackbird (Agelaius xanthomus) Revised Recovery Plan. Atlanta, Georgia. 77 pp.

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1996. Yellow-shouldered Blackbird (Agelaius xanthomus) Revised Recovery Plan. Atlanta, Georgia. 77 pp.

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 2011. Yellow-shouldered Blackbird (Agelaius xanthomus) 5-Yr Review and Summary.

Atlanta, Georgia. 34 pp.

Vincenty, M. 2006. Yellow Warbler (Dendroica petechia) breeding biology and parasitism by the shiny cowbird (Molothrus bonariensis) in Boquerón, Puerto Rico. MS Thesis.

Additional Information

Caribbean Ecological Services Field Office Address: PO Box 491, Boquerón, PR 00622 Telephone: 787-851-7297 Fax: 787-851-7440 Internet: www.fws.gov/caribbean

Porrata-Doria, T. 2006. Genetic diversity of the Shiny Cowbird (Molothrus bonariensis): A mtDNA study on the variability within original and expanded range. MS Thesis, Department of Biology, University of Puerto Rico, Mayagüez Campus. 87 pp.

ENDANGERED

Amazona Puerto Rican Amazonvittata vittata

Distribution mating bond that lasts a long time, often lifelong.

A pair of parrots remains together almost all year long, except for when the female is incubating the eggs while the male provides food. The amazon nests in cavities found on large trees, such as the leatherwood tree (Cyrilla racemiflora), among others. If necessary, amazons may also nest in cavities in limestone rock walls. Nesting begins from February through March, all the way to June.

Traditionally, nesting coincides with the driest season of the year, and during the fruiting period of plants of which the seeds, fruits and leaves serve the amazons as nourishment.

Family: Psittacidae Order: Psittaciformes

Description The Puerto Rican amazon, or as the taínos called it, Iguaca, is a bright green bird, with a red forehead and white rings around its eyes, as well as blue covert and primary flight feathers. Its beak is ivory-colored, and its tail is rounded. Juveniles are very similar to the adults. Males and females are also very similar in appearance, and measure about 12 inches (approx. 30 centimeters). Sometimes, the red band on the forehead is wider in males than in females. While flying, the bird makes a distinctively loud “kar . . . kar” call. This sound can carry across great distances. It also makes a variety of other sounds and calls when communicating with other parrots, as well as to establish its territory.

Biological Information Reproduction The Puerto Rican amazon reaches its reproductive age between 3 to 5 years. The parrots usually establish a

Diet This parrot feeds on plants such as: sierra palm, royal palm, nance, Maria tree, guava, pacay, balsam apple, guarea, and trumpet tree, among others.

Distribution The Puerto Rican amazon, a native species, was once very abundant in the Island, including the nearby islands of Culebra, Vieques and Mona. This parrot is the last psittacid species existing, and originated in, US territory. Psittacids are a family of birds, usually tropical, which have brightly colored feathers and a short, highly placed and curved beak. Psittacids are true parrots, like the macaw. The native population has shrunken in size and scope and is mostly concentrated in El Yunque National Forest, the eastern side of the island, and the Río Abajo National Forest, between the municipalities of Arecibo and Utuado. At least three of the amazons liberated in Río Abajo have dispersed and were sighted in Morovis, Vega Baja and Manatí in 2012.

ENDANGERED

Threats Besides having a small population, and a limited area of distribution, the species is threatened by the pearlyeyed thrasher (Margarops fuscatus), which destroys amazon eggs and hatchlings in order to take over the nest. The red-tailed hawk (Buteo jamaicensis), the Puerto Rican broad-winged hawk (Buteo platypterus brunnescens) and rats (Rattus rattus and R. norvegicus) are mortal predators of young and adult amazons. The Philornis pici, a parasitic fly, deposits its larvae onto hatchlings, causing them to sicken and die. European and Africanized bees (Apis mellifera) have also been known to invade amazon nests in order to establish their colony. They sting and kill birds unable to fly away. Hurricanes and other such climate events affect the stability of the population in its natural environment. Habit loss as a consequence of deforestation is an ever-present threat which limits the options available for suitable places to reinsert amazons into their natural environment.

Conservation Measures The Puerto Rican amazon was classified as an endangered species in 1967, before the Endangered Species Act amendments went into effect in 1973.

There is a Cooperative Agreement between the Fish and Wildlife Service, the Department of Natural Resources and the Environment, and the United States Forest Service, which work together to foster the Puerto Rican amazon’s recovery. The three agencies make up the Puerto Rican Amazon Recovery Committee. Initially, a captive breeding program was established, which has grown to include the insertion of amazons back into the wild, habitat management, and research. Other private and academic entities have joined the effort and perform research and education endeavors.

The Recovery Committee periodically surveys the amazons in the wild, and estimated the presence of about 18 – 22 amazons in El Yunque and about 60 – 70 in Río Abajo. Field biologists use several strategies in order to manage the habitat. The shortage of mature trees with the kinds of cavities amazons prefer to build their nests in requires biologists to build and install artificial nests for the birds to use. Also, biologists

may cull the predator species as needed, in order to foster the normal development of eggs and hatchlings.

The captive population is kept as such for various reasons: breeding and building up their numbers, ensure additional populations (especially in the event of a natural catastrophe such as a hurricane), and for the eventual reintroduction of the species in the forests in which they used to thrive. In aviaries, advanced technologies are used to diagnose illnesses and provide treatment. In actuality, there are nearly 350 amazons distributed between the Iguaca Aviary, managed by the Fish and Wildlife Service, in El Yunque, and the José L. Vivaldi Aviary, managed by the Department of Natural Resources and the Environment, in Río Abajo.

The Endangered Species Act, amended in 1973, prohibits the killing, harassing, trapping, purchasing or selling any species, as well as parts and products derived from the species, which is listed as endangered.

References Snyder, N.F., J.W. Wiley, and C.B.Kepler. 1987. The parrots of Luquillo: Natural history and conservation of the Puerto Rican parrot. West. Found. Vet. Zool., Los Angeles.

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 2009. Revisión final al Plan de Recuperación para la Cotorra Puertorriqueña (Amazona vittata).

Thomas H. White, Jr. and Fernando Núñez-García. “From Cage to Rainforest” U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 2008-06-04

Additional Information Caribbean Ecological Services Field Office Address: PO Box 491, Boquerón, PR 00622 Telephone: 787-851-7297 Fax: 787-851-7440 Internet: www.fws.gov/caribbean

ENDANGERED

Puerto Rican broad-winged hawk

Buteo platypterus brunnescens

Distribution

Biological Information

Family: Accipitridae Order: Falconiformes

Description The Puerto Rican broad-winged hawk is dark brown and has rufous-barred white ventral area.

It is a medium-sized forest hawk that measures approximately 39 centimeters (15.5 inches), and is endemic to Puerto Rico. It is smaller than the Buteo plalypterus platypterus, but larger than the Lesser Antillean subspecies. This is the darkest subspecies of the broad-winged hawks. In adults, the tail is broadly banded with black and white, and the rufous (rust color) breast is characteristic. Adult male and female are similar in appearance, but females are slightly larger. Immature birds have dark bars on the breast and lack the distinctive tail bands of the adult. The Puerto Rican broad-winged hawk population is estimated at about 125 individuals island-wide.

Reproduction The species nest on mature secondary forest and old plantations. In Río Abajo Commonwealth Forest (RACF) nesting sites are characterized by the dominance of tree species such as palo maria (Calophyllum antillanum), teak (Tectona grandis), Honduran mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla) and blue mahoe (Hibiscus elatus). Nests are built in the upper reaches of large trees emerging from the canopy.

New information on the abundance and demographic features of the population of Puerto Rican broadwinged hawks at the RACF indicates high pair fidelity; a nest survival rate of 0.67 across breeding seasons; and an average annual productivity of 1.1 young per nest. Between 2001 and 2003, Puerto Rican broad-wing hawks were radio-tagged and legbanded as hatchlings in RACF and were documented alive in 2013 using the same areas where they were marked (Llerandi-Román and Rios-Cruz pers. comm.).

One female hatchling marked between 2001 and 2003 in RACF has been documented nesting successfully in the years 2007 to 2009. (Rios-Cruz pers. comm.)

Habitat This species occurs in elfin woodland, sierra palm, caimitillo-granadillo, and tabonuco forest types of the Carite Commonwealth Forest, Toro Negro Forest, Los Tres Picachos Forest and El Yunque National Forest, as well as within mature hardwood plantations, shade coffee plantations, and mature secondary forest of the north-central karst region of Puerto Rico within and adjacent to the Río Abajo Commonwealth Forest, and in the Río Encantado area (Florida - Ciales). The topography of the moist karst forest may provide broad-wings alternative nesting sites within the karst

THREATENED

region. Recent studies have documented the use of limestone cliff walls for nesting by a similar Buteo species (i.e., Red-tailed Hawks) in lands adjacent to the RACF. Distribution The Puerto Rican broad-winged hawk is an uncommon and extremely local endemic island raptor of upland montane forests of Puerto Rico.

Extant populations are restricted to montane habitats primarily within five forests: RACF, Carite Commonwealth Forest, Toro Negro Commonwealth Forest, Los Tres Picachos Commonwealth Forest and El Yunque National Forest. Llerandi-Román (2006) found thirteen Puerto Rican broad-winged hawk territories just outside the boundaries of the RACF, at six different locations with suitable broad-winged hawk habitat. The territories were along the Tanamá River valley in the northwestern region of the RACF.

Threats Broad-winged hawk abundance and distribution is very limited. Any threat against the existing population and its habitat can be detrimental to the species. Hurricanes are a natural threat, since the high-velocity winds and heavy rains damage the habitat. Nonetheless, there is a large variety of human activities that also threaten this species.

Construction of recreational facilities, construction of power and communication structures and road construction largely contribute to habitat destruction and fragmentation. In a similar manner, illegal hunting, bad management practices and the lack of comprehensive management plans for the public forests further threaten the species. Lastly, the low population numbers can also hurt the broad-winged hawks, since there could be a possible loss of genetic variation.

Conservation Measures The Broad-winged Hawk was included in the federal list of endangered species since 1994. The Endangered Species Act of 1973, as amended, prohibits the killing, harming, harassing, trapping, purchasing or selling any species, as well as parts and products derived from the species. Recognition through listing encourages and results in conservation actions by Federal, Commonwealth, and private

agencies, groups, and individuals. The Endangered Species Act provides for possible land acquisition and cooperation with the Commonwealth, and requires that recovery actions be carried out for all listed species.

Protection of nest and foraging sites within public and private lands, habitat enhancement, open areas reforestation, updates to distribution information, identification or establishment of biological corridors between nearby populations such as RACF, Los Tres Picachos Commonwealth Forest and Toro Negro Commonwealth Forest to facilitate broad-winged hawk movement between these forests and increase outreach are essential measures to protect the habitat and the populations of this species.

References Delannoy, C.A. 1992. Status surveys of the Puerto Rican sharpshinned hawk (Accipiter striatus venator) and Puerto Rican broad-winged hawk (Buteo platypterus brunnescens). Final report submitted to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service as specified in work contract no. 14-16-0004-91-031.

Hengstenberg D.W., and F.J. Vilella. 2004. Nesting Ecology and Behavior of Broad-winged Hawks in Moist Karst Forests of Puerto Rico. Journal of Raptor Research. 39(4): 404-416.

Hernández, E. 1980. Estudio de aves, reptiles y anfibios en la reserva forestal de Carite. Informe presentado como requisito del curso Ciencias Naturales 306, Programa de Mantenimiento Ambiental. Facultad de Ciencias Naturales, Universidad de Puerto Rico, Recinto de Rio Piedras, Rio Piedras, Puerto Rico.

Llerandi –Roman, I.C. 2006. Red-tailed Hawk Home range, habitat use, and activity patterns in north-central Puerto Rico.

Thesis. Mississippi State University. Mississippi State, MS. Llerandi-Román, I.C., Rios-Cruz, J.M. and F.J. Vilella. 2009.

Cliff-nesting by the Red-tailed Hawk in Moist Karst Forests of Northen Puerto Rico.

Miranda-Castro, L.,A.R. Puente, and S. Vega-Castillo. 2000. First list of the vertebrates os Los Tres Picachos State Forest, Puerto Rico, with data on relative abundance and altitudinal distribution.

Caribbean Journal of Science 36(1-2):117-126.

Raffaele, H.A. 1989. A guide of the Birds of Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. Princeton University Press, New Jersey.

Snyder, N.F., J.W. Wiley and C.B. Kepler. 1987. The parrots of Luquillo: Natural history and conservation of the Puerto Rican parrot. Western Foundation of Vertebrate Zoology, Los Angeles, California.

THREATENED

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 2010. Puerto Rican broad-winged hawk or guaraguao de bosque (Buteo platypterus brunnescens) 5-Year Review. Caribbean Ecological Services Field Office, Boquerón, Puerto Rico.

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1994. Endangered and Threatened Wildife and Plants; Determination of Endangered Status for the Puerto Rican broad-winged hawk and the Puerto Rican sharpshinned hawk. Federal Register 59:46710-46715.

Wiley, J.W. and G.P. Bauer. 1985. Caribbean National Forest, Puerto Rico. American Birds 39:12-18.

Vilella F.J. & D.W. Hengstenberg. 2006. Broad-Winged Hawk (Buteo platypterus brunnecsens) movement and habitat use in a moist limestone forest of Puerto Rico. Ornitología Neotropical.

17: 563–579

Additional Information Caribbean Ecological Services Field Office Address: PO Box 491, Boquerón, PR 00622 Telephone: 787-851-7297 / Fax: 787-851-7440 Internet: www.fws.gov/caribbean

THREATENED

Puerto Rican Nightjar

Caprimulgus noctitherus

Distribution buceras), gumbo limbo (Bursera simaruba), birdcatcher trees (Pisonia albida), Caribbean princewood (Exostema caribaeum), and big-leaf mahogany (Swietenia mahagoni). Some of these trees shed their leaves during certain seasons, and the nightjar uses this leaf litter for nesting.

Diet The Puerto Rican nightjar feeds on nocturnal moths and other flying insects. During the day, chicks sleep on the ground while adults sleep perched on tree branches. At nighttime, the adults come down to feed the chicks, and continue flying and gliding.

Familia: Caprimulgidae Orden: Caprimulgiformes

Description The Puerto Rican nightjar is a medium-sized nocturnal bird with a very short, but very wide, beak. Its plumage is mottled with chocolate-brown, gray and black splotches. The male has a wide, white band along the outer edges of its tail. The female has a smaller white band along the outer edges of the tail.

The Puerto Rican nightjar nests on the ground, where it camouflages very well with the leaf litter.

Biological Information Reproduction The Puerto Rican nightjar does not build an actual nest; rather, it deposits its eggs directly on the leaf litter in densely-vegetated forests. Nesting season lasts from February through July, and both males and females incubate the eggs and feed the hatchlings.

Habitat The tree species usually found in the Puerto Rican nightjar’s habitat include the oxhorn tree (Bucida

Distribution In 2010, Puerto Rican nightjar presence was confirmed in 13 municipalities in southern Puerto Rico. Over 55,570 cuerdas along the southern coast are considered potential habitat for the Puerto Rican nightjar, from Guayama to Cabo Rojo. The majority of high-quality habitat for this species is found between the municipalities of Guánica, Sabana Grande, Yauco, Guayanilla, Peñuelas and Ponce. A large part of the areas with suitable habitat potential are in privatelyowned land near protected areas such as the Susúa Commonwealth Forest, the El Convento protected area, and Guánica Commonwealth Forest.

Threats Some the threats faced by this species include: • Destruction or modification of the habitat for agricultural, residential, and tourism development.

• Predators such as: • Pearly-eyed thrasher (Margarops fuscatus) • Short-eared owl (Asio flammeus) • Red fire ants (Solenopsis invicta) – These prey on the nightjar’s eggs and hatchlings, since the species nests on the ground.

• Patas monkeys (Erythrocebus patas) and Rhesus

ENDANGERED

monkeys (Macaca mulatta) - Although it is speculated that these monkeys could be nightjar predators, it has not been documented.

• Small Indian mongoose (Herpestes javanicus) - It depredates the nightjar’s eggs or hatchlings.

Conservation Measures The Puerto Rican nightjar was listed under the Endangered Species Act in 1970. In 2010, a quantitative model was developed to allow for the identification of potential habitat for the nightjar. The model estimates the quality of the habitat by using geographical information data.

The Endangered Species Act of 1973, as amended, prohibits the killing, harassing, trapping, purchasing or selling any species, as well as parts and products derived from the species.

Recommendations Forests must be allowed to mature, since the nightjar needs closed-canopy forests with widely-spaced trees, a structure usually common in mature forests.

The Puerto Rican nightjar is easily confused with the common nighthawk (Chordeiles minor), a bird of very similar appearance to the nightjar, which migrates to Puerto Rico during summer. Increasing public awareness in relation to the species might help with the conservation efforts.

The vast majority of suitable nightjar (81.4%) remains under private ownership. Therefore, efforts must be concentrated in acquiring and protecting as much forest habitat as possible in this fairly large tract of coastal dry forest. Also, conservation programs from agencies like the USFWS and Natural

Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) should also be implemented in private lands within this region, aiming to create natural corridors between Guánica, Susúa, La Parguera, Sierra Bermeja, and some places in Sabana Grande and Guayama to ease the nightjar’s dispersion.

References Irizarry. 2006. A call to protect Sierra Bermeja for future generations. Sociedad Ornitológica Puertorriqueña, San Juan, Puerto Rico.18 Biological Conservation 33: 281-288.

González, R, 2010, Population estimation and landscape ecology of the Puerto Rican Nightjar. Thesis, Mississippi State University.

Han, K. L., M. B. Robbins, and M. J. Braun, 2010, A multigene estimate of phylogeny in the nightjars and nighthawks (Caprimulgidae). Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 55: 443-453.

Raffaele, H. A. , 1989, A guide to the Birds of Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. Princeton University Press, New Jersey. 254 pp.

Raffaele, H., et al., 1998, A Guide to the Birds of the West Indies, Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey.

Torres, J. A., et al., 2001, Seasonal and nocturnal periodicities in ant nuptial flights in the tropics (Hymenoptera: Formicidae).

Sociobiology 37: 601-626.20 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1984, Puerto Rican Whip-poorwill Recovery Plan. Atlanta, Georgia. 16 pp.

Vilella, F. J., 1989, Reproductive ecology and population biology of the Puerto Rican Nightjar Caprimulgus noctitherus.

Dissertation, Louisiana State University.

Vilella, F. J. 1995.Reproductive ecology and behavior of the Puerto Rican Nightjar Caprimulgus noctitherus. Bird Conservation International 5: 349-366.

Vilella, F. J. 2008. Nest habitat use of the Puerto Rican Nightjar Caprimulgus noctitherus in Guánica Biosphere Reserve. Bird Conservation International 18: 1-11.

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Vilella, F. J., 2010, Puerto Rican Nightjar (Caprimulgus noctitherus), Neotropical Birds Online (T. S. Schulenberg, Editor). Ithaca: Cornell Lab of Ornithology; retrieved from Neotropical Birds Online: http://neotropical.birds.cornell.edu/ portal/species/overview?p_p_spp=24854 Vilella, F. J., and P. J. Zwank, 1993, Geographic distribution and abundance of the Puerto Rican Nightjar, Journal of Field Ornithology 64: 223-238.

Vilella, F. J., and P. J. Zwan,. 1993, Ecology of the small Indian mongoose in a coastal dry forest of Puerto Rico where sympatric with the Puerto Rican Nightjar. Caribbean Journal of Science 29: 24-29.

Vilella, F. J., and R. Gonzรกlez, 2009, Geographic distribution of the Puerto Rican Nightjar: a patch occupancy approach. Final report, Cooperative Agreement 011406-001. USGS Wilson, M. D., and B. D. Watts.2006.The effect of moonlight on detection of Whip-poor-wills: implications for long-term monitoring strategies. Journal of Field Ornithology 77: 207-211.

Additional Information Caribbean Ecological Services Field Office Address: PO Box 491, Boquerรณn, PR 00622 Telephone: 787-851-7297 / Fax: 787-851-7440 Internet: www.fws.gov/caribbean

ENDANGERED

Piping Plover

Charadrius melodus

Distribution Habitat The piping plover inhabits great sandy zones on beaches with little vegetation, close to dunes. It is a migratory bird which, before initiating its autumn migration, usually congregates in groups on solitary beaches, from which they begin their journey to the southern United States. Some individuals reach the Bahamas and the Antilles. The southward migration has the purpose of spending winter in a warm climate, feeding well so they have a successful breeding season when they return to their usual nesting areas.

Family: Charadriidae Order: Charadriiformes

Diet This species primarily feeds on small crustaceans, mollusks, worms and insects it finds on the beach or on nearby salt flats.

Description

Distribution The piping plover nests along the east coast of the The piping plover is a small bird, with a length of United States and Canada. It is present year-round, approximately 6 to 7.5 inches (15 to 17 centimeters). It from the coasts of North Carolina through Florida. is of a light, grayish, sand-like color. During breeding Its winter distribution takes them to northern Mexico season, the adult has orange-yellow legs, a black stripe and the Greater Antilles. It is considered a rare visitor across its forehead (from eye to eye), and a black band in Puerto Rico, although it has been observed in the around its neck. Juvenile birds have gray legs and lack southwestern coast of the island, in San Juan’s Caño the characteristic black markings. These plovers are Martín Peña, in Jobos Bay, in Guayama and in San swift runners, and have the peculiar habit of running Jacinto, in Guayanilla. for short distances and stopping abruptly. When it remains still, the piping plover easily blends in with Threats the pale sandy background.

The piping plover was an abundant species along Biological Information the Atlantic coast of North America during the 19th century. However, they almost vanished as a result of Reproduction indiscriminate hunting for their feathers, used to stuff The piping plovers nest in the beaches along the cushions. After the Migratory Bird Treaty of 1918 was Atlantic coast of North America, below the high-tide established, their numbers increased and reached its line, in sandy flats, below dunes or in areas between maximum in the 1940s. The current reduction in their dunes that is washed by the water. Breeding season population stems from projects and developments usually goes from February through August. that affect the coastline, as well as the increase in

THREATENED

recreational use of beaches, which creates disturbances in the beaches where the plovers nest. Because these birds build their nests directly on the sand, the eggs and hatchlings are particularly vulnerable to being destroyed by uncontrolled human activity, unrestrained house pets, and all-terrain vehicles used on these beaches.

Conservation Measures The piping plover was included in the Endangered Species list in 1986. In Puerto Rico, we must preserve the coastal salt and mud flats, such as the ones near the Cabo Rojo lighthouse, which are essential habitats not only for the piping plover, but for numerous other migratory and permanent bird species.

The Endangered Species Act, amended in 1973, prohibits the killing, harassing, trapping, purchasing or selling any species, as well as parts and products derived from the species, which is listed as endangered.

References Cairns, W.E. and I.A. McLaren. 1980. Status of the piping plover (Charadrius melodus) on the East Coast of North America. Am. Birds 34:206-208.

Niemi, G. and T. Davis. 1979. Notes on the nesting ecology of the piping plover. Loon 51: 74-79.

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1985. Endangered and threatened wildlife and plants: determination of endangered and threatened status for the piping plover. Federal Register 50. (238):5072650734.

Additional Information Caribbean Ecological Services Field Office Address: PO Box 491, Boquerรณn, PR 00622 Telephone: 787-851-7297 Fax: 787-851-7440 Internet: www.fws.gov/caribbean

THREATENED

White-Necked Crow

Corvus

leucognaphalus

Distribution of trees and palm trees. Their nests are made of small twigs, and lined with dry grass. Breeding season begins in February and ends in June.

This species usually lays 3 or 4 greenish blue, spotted eggs. The incubation period usually lasts between 18 to 22 days. The hatchlings abandon their nest 35 to 44 days after hatching. At this time, there is no nest registry in Puerto Rico.

Habitat In Puerto Rico, this species used to be found in the center and east of the island, usually in high, forested areas, and moist, karst areas.

Family: Corvidae Order: Passeriformes

Description The white-necked crow is one of the native crow species that used to be found in Puerto Rico. At 18 inches (46 centimeters) long, this crow is one of the biggest crows in the Caribbean. Females are a bit smaller than males. This species has a plumage that usually looks black, although when seen in direct sunlight, it may appear as a deep blue-violet. The feathers at the base of the neck are white; this is what gives the crow its common name. This bird’s beak and legs are black, and its eyes are reddish ochre. The species has not been heard or seen since 1963, which suggests it may be extinct in Puerto Rico. Today, it may be found in Hispaniola (Dominican Republic and Haiti).

Biological Information Reproduction The white-necked crow nests in branches near the top

Diet They primarily feed on wild fruits and seeds, although they may also feed on small amphibians, reptiles and invertebrates.

Distribution The white-necked crow was found between the municipalities of Lares and Utuado, near the center of the Island. On Puerto Rico’s eastern side, the species was seen in the Luquillo Sierra, El Yunque, among other places in the region.

Threats Widespread habitat destruction and modification, as well as uncontrolled hunting, were the major factors in the decline of this bird species in Puerto Rico to the point of extinction; that is to say, this bird is no longer found in Puerto Rico. This bird was hunted extensively in order to protect crops, and in the Dominican Republic, it was hunted as a source of food. Areas in which the species was formerly found in have been deforested, developed, and used for agriculture. This species has been searched for in Puerto Rico, but no specimens have been found.

ENDANGERED

Conservation Measures The white-necked crow was included in the Endangered Species list in 1991. Although the species has not been heard or seen in many years, it cannot be concluded that it has been completely eradicated.

More intensive surveys into the historical locations for this species, as well as other places apt for it, are needed before such a determination can take place.

The Endangered Species Act of 1973, as amended prohibits the killing, harassing, trapping, purchasing or selling any species, as well as parts and products derived from the species.

References

Biaggi, V.1997. Las aves de Puerto Rico. Editorial de la Universidad de Puerto Rico, San Juan, Puerto Rico, 389 pp.

Raffaelle, H.A.1989. A guide to the Birds of Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. Princeton University Press, New Jersey, 254 pp.

Rafaelle, H.A., et al.1998. A guide to the birds of the West Indies.

Princeton University Press, New Jersey, 511 pp.

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 2010. White-necked Crow 5-Year Review, Boquerรณn, Puerto Rico. 14 pp.

Additional Information Caribbean Ecological Services Field Offices Address: PO Box 491, Boquerรณn, PR 00622 Telephone: 787-851-7297 / Fax: 787-851-7440 Internet: www.fws.gov/caribbean

ENDANGERED

Plain Pigeon

Patagioenas inornata wetmorei

Distribution Both members in the pair work in building the nest, where the female lays a single egg, which is incubated by both parents for a period of approximately 18 days. After hatching, the chick is fed by both parents for approximately three weeks (22 to 24 days). At the end of this period, the juvenile abandons the nest. A breeding pair can produce three clutches per year, with a success rate oscillating between 42% and 48%. The plain pigeon nests throughout the entire year. However, there is a peak in nesting numbers from April through June.

Family: Columbidae Order: Columbiformes

Description The Puerto Rican plain pigeon is a bird similarly-sized to the common dove. At a distance, it appears as a light blue-gray bird, but on closer inspection, it has a light gray-blue body with grayish brown wings, and the head, neck, breast and wings have a mauve tint.

When perched, its wings show a fine, white band. The beak is gray with a black tip, and the legs are deep red.

The eyes are light grayish blue. Although the females are slightly smaller than males, it is almost impossible to tell the sexes apart out in the wild. Juveniles are similar to adults, although they are browner than gray, and have dark eyes. There are three subspecies of plain pigeon in the Caribbean: the Patagioenas inornata inornata from Cuba and Hispaniola, the P. i. exigua from Jamaica, and the P. i. wetmorei from Puerto Rico.

Biological Information Reproduction The plain pigeon reaches sexual maturity at around the first year of age. The species is monogamous.

Habitat The plain pigeon is a generalist species – it can thrive in different habitats, but usually behaves as a border species, nesting, foraging and sleeping in trees along the sides of roads, rivers and creeks. The species can also be observed in secondary forests (forests that have re-grown after the primary vegetation was impacted by a major disturbance) or moving across agricultural and urban developments in its search for food or resting areas. This species’ nests have only been found in eastcentral Puerto Rico (e.g. San Lorenzo, Caguas, Cidra, Comerío) and almost always near bodies of water such as creeks or small streams. The plain pigeon uses large, leafy trees, like the mango tree, for nesting. It also likes the bamboo clusters near the water.

Diet A wide variety of plants provide food for this bird species. For example, the royal palm (Roystonea borinquena), day-blooming jasmine (Cestrum diurnum), camasey (Miconia sp.), péndula (Petitia dominguensis) and princess vine (Cissus sycyiodes).

The plain pigeon ingests water accumulated in bromeliads’ leaves and in the flowers of the African tulip tree (Spathodea campanulata).

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Distribution Historically, the plain pigeon was abundant in Puerto Rico. It could be found anywhere between the LaresUtuado region through the eastern mountainous area of Puerto Rico. It has also been documented in the following municipalities: Aguadilla, Cabo Rojo, Camuy, Guayama, Luquillo, Mayagüez, Corozal, Morovis, Orocovis, Ponce, Utuado, Vega Alta and Vieques. Unfortunately, the species has been reduced to only a few small populations in east-central Puerto Rico (Cidra, Cayey, Caguas, Comerío, Aibonito, Aguas Buenas, Gurabo, and San Lorenzo). By 1940, the plain pigeon was believed to be extinct until a small population of 52 individuals was found in Cidra in 1963. In recent years, the plain pigeon has been moving towards the mountain forests bordered by agricultural land in the karst region (Corozal, Morovis and Florida). In 2012, the plain pigeon population was estimated at 1669 individuals.

Threats The plain pigeon faces several threats. Some threats are anthropogenic (man-made), while others are natural.

The natural threats include: • External (parasitic flies such as [Philornis pici]) and internal (Trematodes [Tanaisia bragai]) parasites, as well as other pathogens – these cause infections that often kill hatchlings • Natural events (hurricanes and tropical storms) – After these events, the birds lose habitat and food sources.

• Competition with other species like the scaly-naped pigeon (Patagioenas squamosa) – Competition for suitable nesting habitats and food sources.

• Depredation from other species such as: birds (ej. pearly-eyed thrasher [Margarops fuscatus], redtailed hawk [Buteo jamaicensis], red-legged thrush [Turdus plumbeus], yellow- and black-crowned night herons [Nyctanassa violacea and Nycticorax nycticorax], green heron [Butorides virescens]), domestic cats (Felis domesticus) and rats (Rattus rattus).

Some human activities also pose threats to this species. For example: • Habitat destruction and modification due to construction, expansion and maintenance of roads, as well as habitat destruction for agricultural, residential or touristic use.

• Poaching, disturbances that impact nesting areas (such as tree-trimming), harassing nesting pairs, and stealing of hatchling.

Conservation Measures The plain pigeon was included in the Endangered Species list in 1970. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, the Department of Natural and Environmental Resources (PRDNER), and the University of Puerto Rico at Humacao implemented a captive breeding program for the plain pigeon in 1983. A total of 31 captive-bred individuals were released between 1993 and 1995 in Cidra. The captive breeding program was discontinued near the end of the 90s, when an increase in natural plain pigeon population was measured.

The Endangered Species Act of 1973, amended, prohibits the killing, harassing, trapping, purchasing or selling any species, as well as parts and products derived from the species.

Additional Recommendations Research on this species must continue. This will help determine important aspects regarding the populations’ behavior and dispersion, and determine the effects the predators have on them, among other topics. It is also important to work with private land-owners on the implementation of conservation measures that result in restoration and protection of habitat for the soecies, and thus, increase plain pigeon populations.

References Pérez-Rivera, R. 1978. Preliminary work on the feeding habits, nesting habitat and reproductive activities of the plain pigeon (Columba inornata wetmorei) and the red-necked pigeon (Columba squamosa), sympatric species: an analysis of their interaction. Science-Ciencia 5:89-98.

Pérez-Rivera, R. A. and J. Collazo-Algarín. 1976a. Distribución geográfica, hábitos alimentarios y competencia por alimentos de la paloma sabanera de Puerto Rico. Science-Ciencia 3:52-55.

Pérez-Rivera, R. A. and J. Collazo-Algarín. 1976b. Ciclo de vida y algunos de los problemas a que se enfrenta la paloma sabanera de Puerto Rico. Science-Ciencia 4:10-19.

PRDNER. 1999. Plain pigeon field studies. Performance Report: July 1997-December 1998. Project W-16. Puerto Rico Department of Natural and Environmental Resources. 15 pp.

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Sociedad Ornitológica de Puerto Rico, abril 2008, Volumen XII Número I, El Bien-Te-Veo, 1-8 pp.

Ruiz-Lebrón, C., D. J. Galán-Kercadó, and R. A. Pérez-Rivera.

1995. Segunda liberación experimental de palomas sabaneras en Cidra, Puerto Rico. El Pitirre 8: 5-7.

Rivera-Milán, F. F. 2011. Peer-review comments on the 5-year review for the Puerto Rican plain pigeon (Patagioenas inornata wetmorei). U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Division of Migratory Bird Management. Laurel, MD. 12 pp.

U.S. Fish and Wildife Service. 2011 Puerto Rican plain pigeon or paloma sabanera(Patagioenas inornata wetmorei = Columba inornata wetmorei) 5-Year Review: Summary and Evaluation.

Caribbean Ecologial Services Field Office, Boquerón, PR. 23 pp.

Additional Information

Oficina de Servicios Ecológicos del Caribe Dirección: PO Box 491, Boquerón, PR 00622 Teléfono: 787-851-7297 / Fax: 787-851-7440 Internet: www.fws.gov/caribbean

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS). 1982. Puerto Rican Plain Pigeon Recovery Plan. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Atlanta, Georgia. 52 pp.

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Roseate Tern Sterna dougallii dougallii

Distribution a clutch of one to three eggs, cream with brown spots, which camouflage well with the rocky, coralline ground. The eggs hatch after about 24 days. Both parents nurture, feed and tend to the hatchlings. The hatchlings depend completely on their parents for safety and food. The hatchlings grow quickly, and after four or five weeks (25 to 28 days)of hatching, they are ready to fly.

Nonetheless, they stay with their parents of several months after leaving the nest, while they learn to hunt.

Family: Laridae Order: Charadriiformes

Description The roseate tern is a medium-sized sea bird. Its underside, neck, and tail (which is long and bifurcate) are white. Its back and wings, on the other hand, are light gray. The roseate tern also has a small cap of black feathers on its head. The legs are coral red, but turn dark red during winter. The beak is coral red with a black tip during breeding season, but turns black during winter. In this species, the male and the female cannot be told apart by eyesight. Juveniles are very different from adults, as their feathers have brown splotches, the beak is brown, and the legs are dark gray.

Biological Information Reproducción The roseate tern is a migratory bird, which means they do not stay in Puerto Rico. Rather, they travel to other parts of the world and returns to the island to reproduce during May through August. Females lay

Habitat The roseate tern likes nesting on cays and rocky or coralline islets far from the coast. There, the mating pair selects an area in which to make their nest, which is often just a small cavity among rocks or on the ground itself. They rarely nest in large islands.

Diet This species obtains their food through quick dives into the sea. Their diet is rich in proteins. It mostly feeds on small fish such as sardines and anchovies.

Distribution The roseate tern is found mostly on the northern hemisphere, along the northeast coast of the United States. They can migrate from Nova Scotia through Brazil. In Puerto Rico, roseate tern nesting sites have been reported in the cays and islets near Lajas, Manatí, Barceloneta, Guayanilla, Culebra and Vieques. Since 2005, surveys about the amount of individuals nesting in Puerto Rico’s cays and islets fluctuates around 2,000.

Threats During their breeding season, the roseate tern faces a variety of threats, which affect their nests, eggs, hatchlings and even the adults, whether directly or indirectly. For instance, other marine birds such as

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the oystercatcher and the turnstone, can depredate on the roseate tern’s eggs, and hermit crabs depredate the hatchlings. Other factors affecting the roseate tern are human interference in nesting areas, egg harvesting, the slaughter of adults during migration, and pollution, The consequences of climate change, such as an increase in sea level, is also a threat since it may eventually reduce and even eliminate the nesting areas preferred by the roseate tern.

Conservation Measures The roseate tern was included in the Endangered Species list in 1987. So as to preserve and evaluate the population’s status, an annual survey is performed during the breeding seasons. These surveys provide information about the specific places in which the roseate terns nest, how many breeding pairs are there, how many eggs are laid throughout the season, and the success rate of the eggs.

The Endangered Species Act, amended in 1973, prohibits the killing, harassing, trapping, purchasing or selling any species, as well as parts and products derived from the species, which is listed as endangered.

References Biaggi, V.1997. Las aves de Puerto Rico. Editorial de la Universidad de Puerto Rico, San Juan, Puerto Rico, 389 pp.

Cabot, D. and I. Nisbet. 2013. Terns. New Naturalist Library.

Harper Collins Publishers. London. 480pp.

Rafaelle, H.A., et al.1998. A guide to the birds of the West Indies.

Princeton University Press, New Jersey, 511pp.

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 2010, Caribbean Roseate Tern and North Atlantic Roseate Tern (Sterna dougallii dougallii) 5-Year Review Summary and Evaluation.

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1993, Caribbean Roseate Tern (Sterna dougallii) Recovery Plan. Atlanta, GA. 46 pp.

Additional Information Caribbean Ecological Services Field Office Address: PO Box 491, Boquerón, PR 00622 Telephone: 787-851-7297 Fax: 787-851-7440 Internet: www.fws.gov/caribbean

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manatus Antillean Manatee Trichechus manatus

Distribution and manipulate food and have teeth (molars) that they keep replacing as long as they live.

Because they are mammals they must come up for air. Their nostrils are like little valves located at the tip of the snout above the mouth and can remain tightly closed when they dive under water. Manatees can remain submerged for 15 to 20 minutes. Manatees have two front flippers with three nails on each. Their scientific name, Trichechus manatus, means three (tri) and nails (chechus).

Biological Information Family: Trichechidae Order: Sirenia

Description The Antillean manatee is slow moving aquatic mammal. They range in color from gray to brown. The manatees’ reaches adulthood at about six years of age and the oldest in captivity reached over 60 years of age. Adult manatees in Puerto Rico measure about 10 feet (approx. 3 meters) in length and weigh between 1,200 to 2,000 pounds (approx. 544 to 907 kilograms).

At birth, calves measure over 3 feet (approx. 1 meter) and weigh between 35 and 60 pounds (approx. 15 to 27 kilograms). Puerto Rican manatees are smaller and more slender than Florida manatees. Sexes are distinguished by the position of the genital openings.

Females appear heavier and bulkier than males of the same length. The manatee body is round, tapering into a spoon or paddle-shaped tail. Their body is covered with sparse hairs and their snouts with stiff whiskers called vibrissae that give it another sensory tool.

Manatees have unique lips that help them gather, grasp

Reproduction Females are able to reproduce at about 4 to 5 years of age and typically give birth to only one calf but there have been a few cases of twin births. The gestation period of the manatee is about 11-13 months. Calves are completely dependent on maternal care for survival, nursing for up to two years.

Habitat Manatees in Puerto Rico inhabit mostly coastal shallow marine areas, but will also occur in fresh water. They may be encountered in canals, rivers, estuaries (the mouth of the rivers) and saltwater bays.

Diet Manatees are herbivores, feeding primarily on seagrasses and aquatic plants that grow in shallow coastal waters and rivers. The Antillean manatee feeds primarily on three seagrass species in Puerto Rico: paddle grass (Halodule wrightii), turtle grass (Thalassia testudinum), and manatee grass (Syringodium filiformis). Occasional use of mangrove and accidental ingestion of green algae and hydroids has been reported.

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Distribution In Puerto Rico, manatees are more common along the east and south of Puerto Rico. Surveys show concentrations in several “hot spots” including Ceiba, Vieques Island, Jobos Bay in Salinas and Boquerón Bay. Other important areas are the San Juan Bay, Luquillo, Guayanilla, Lajas, Cabo Rojo and Mayagüez. Manatees in Puerto Rico are least abundant along the north coast, between Rincón and Dorado.

Manatees have also been reported, although only in few instances, around Culebra Island. No records exist from Mona or Desecheo Islands.

And last but not least, solid waste and debris also threatens manatee survival. In 2008, six manatees were trapped in the Rio Loco after solid waste and debris clogged the mouth of the river, in Guánica.

Conservation Measures

Threats

The West Indian Manatee was designated as an endangered species in 1970. Manatees are protected through a number of Federal and Commonwealth laws that specify that manatees should not be given food or water, touched or followed. The primary regulations at the Federal level are the Endangered Species Act of 1973, as amended, and the Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972. Puerto Rico Commonwealth laws include several regulations that provide protection for the Antillean manatee and its habitat, such as the New Wildlife Law of 1999; Regulation No.6766 for the management of vulnerable and endangered species; the Aquatic Safety and Navigational Law of 2000; and Law No. 147 for the protection, conservation, and management of coral reefs in Puerto Rico.

Boat strikes are the primary mode of human-caused manatee deaths in Puerto Rico. The majority of natural deaths happen during or immediately after birth.

Stressful environmental conditions, such as hurricanes, may cause calf strandings, which may eventually die without the protection and nourishment their mother provides. Improper use of watercrafts also contributes to these strandings. Excessive speeds can result in a fatal strike to the mother, or noise stress to the mother and the calf. If the mother dies, the calf will be left alone, and if the mother is frightened and stressed enough, she may leave her calf behind.

Preservation of sea grass beds is essential to ensure the continued existence of the manatee in Puerto Rico. The public is encouraged to follow all boating regulations, avoid damaging sea grass beds with anchors and propeller scaring, and enjoy encounters with these animals from a distance. Likewise, use of polarized sunglasses during boating of any kind is recommended to avoid collisions, since these glasses filter sunlight glare on the water’s surface and improves visibility. Keeping solid waste and fishing lines out of rivers and streams can also contribute to manatee conservation.

Increases in commercial and recreational activities along the coast could affect manatee habitat.

Construction and expansion of ports and marinas could damage seagrass beds, as well as improper boatmanship especially in shallow sea grass areas.

Government agencies, at the state and Federal level, work with developers to incorporate conservation in development project to address adverse effects to manatee habitat. The Caribbean Ecological Services Field Office implements a Rescue, Rehabilitation and Release Program for the Antillean manatee population in Puerto Rico. Manatee strandings in PR are managed by the DNER Marine Mammal Program with the collaboration of the Manatee Conservation Center and the Puerto Rico Zoo.

Sighting records for the USVI are virtually nonexistent, with only one significant record of presence in that area. The Antillean Manatee is also present along the coasts of the Greater Antilles, the Gulf of Mexico, the eastern coast of Central America and further south along the north coast of South America all the way to northeastern Brazil.

Contaminated water and discharges make their way into the rivers polluting manatee drinking water and food sources. Human demands for potable water will likely increase, possibly limiting sources of clean drinking water for manatees. In the future, the potential loss of fresh water sources may be the most limiting habitat factors for manatees.

One possible strategy for manatee conservation could be the designation of federal Manatee Protection

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Areas (MPAs), where speed limit zones and/or havens can be set in certain manatee important areas. MPAs in Puerto Rico are still in the planning stage and studies are underway to better understand manatee coastal habitats and will identify the most suitable regions of the island for the species. The DNER also has a manatee conservation and protection plan that establishes boat slow speed zones within important manatee areas in Puerto Rico.

Other strategies used to minimize threats to manatees include: no wake areas, marked navigation channels, boat exclusion areas, and standard construction conditions for marinas and boat ramps. Regulatory speed buoys can help boaters identify navigable waterways and remind them of speed zone regulations to avoid or minimize collisions with manatees.

References Mignucci A. 2010. El manatí de Puerto Rico. San Juan, Puerto Rico: Red Caribeña de Varamientos & Universidad Interamericana de Puerto Rico, 56 pp.

UNEP. 2010. Regional Management Plan for the West Indian Manatee (Trichechus manatus) compiled by Ester QuintanaRizzo and John Reynolds III. CEP Technical Report No. 48.

UNEP Caribbean Environment Programme, Kingston, Jamaica.

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 2008. 5-Year Review, West Indian Manatee (Trichechus manatus). Prepared by the USFWS in cooperation with the Manatee Recovery Team. 81 pp.

Sirenia Project -http://fl.biology.usgs.gov/Manatees/Manatee_ Sirenia_Project/Manatee_Information_Sheet/manatee_ information_sheet.html Society of Marine Mammalogy, April1998. The Diet of the Manatee (Trichechus manatus) in Puerto Rico. Marine Mammal Science, 14(2): 394-397.

Additional Information Caribbean Ecological Services Field Office Address: P.O. Box 491 Boquerón, PR 00622 Phone: 787-851-7297 / Fax: 787-787-7440 Website: www.fws.gov/caribbean

Mignucci-Giannoni, A.A. 1989. Zoogeography of marine mammals in Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands. MS Thesis.

Department of Marine Affairs, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, R.I. 448 pp.

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