= Linguistic Grammar of English / . 2 3 : 5 3 6 3 7 2 8 2 9 8 7 2 8 : , 2554. 232 9 ? ISBN 978-974-533-637-7 PE1112 64 2554 1. -- . I. 9 8 7 2 8 : . 5 3 . II. 3EF 7 EF .
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= = G 9 E 78H I 26 H (linguistic grammar) 9 JK L7 M N? 2 ? O P 2 F Q G9?79R H 26 H S J 6 73EF H 7TEF G9?7 N 7OU O P 2 N? H N I 6 9 QVW? FG3? 7OU 98 G EF 9 E VW? F7OU 7X? 5 XP 2 W? 7 F Q98 8 P I H 7 N WH 8? 2 W? N? N 8H XP3H G9?7 J Q N? H O P 2GN7OU O P 2 F H 5KI H JW ? QW 8PO P 2GN F79R N?3 N H 7OU O P 2 F H 5KI H H JW ? 73H VW? F 7 OU 7X? 5 XP Q H O P 2 H O I 7 OU O P 2 F H 5KI JW ? QW 98
[1] Victor plays the piano.
27 78H 7O[
VW? F7OU 7X? 5 XP J H 8P75? GXO P 273H I N? N H ? 26 K JK 98 78 G 5? G EF O PX6 XP H VW?7OU 7X? 5 2 GN H O P 273H I [2] *piano plays victor the
7O[ 78H 27
7 J P N? N 3 H XP ? 5? V NT8 N H G O P 2 I H ? F :N7 RXP Q H O P 2N 8H H 2 7OU 79 : 7OU V8 H 5KI QQ H JW ? W O O P 2 8P H JW ? 98
9 F F 8H 5? ? 7OU 2 X XK 7OU 2 FXPJ H 79 :GN7 XK X6 7OU ? 7 98 J? 7 QN WH 8? H [1] 7OU F F Q N? 8P [2] 7OU F F HX6 7OU N I P Q? F7 X6 7OU ? W? G 26 T H G9 H 2 W?N? 98 Q7OU H 9 KF 5 2 W? 8 8P7OU H 9 KF 5 2 W?5 7 G3? JE 7OU X
Linguistic Grammar Of English
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3 H 9 KF 5 : N I 7 XK 2 75? GX PQ 5 K 3H G9?7 J 8H N? H [1] J Q N? 8P [2] Q H N? X I 3H G9?7 JT a 2 W? N I 7N G 98 5 7 N T XT 7 2 P9 8 P F O 8P 6 G9?7 OU P7Q Q QQ V 5KI N? X Q N VW?73 F 3 8? 2 7T H ? F K 98 H 2 QJ? QW 6 9 Q2 F S O GX K 98 2 I 7 F ? 7 EF ? 7 H O P7 9 KF N I XK X6 7OU F7 ? 2 W?7 F Q H H S5 (parts of speech) H H S5 O P 2 H 2 T H 2 W?7 98H I J7 P9 N? H O P T N K 98 5 F 9 KF 9 E 98 (native language) 5 7 K 98 3H G9? 7 J EF N? H O P T F 5KI 8H H H S 9 7 Q PQ 6 7 RXP JG3? N?N F 5KI 7TEF J:O P 2
G G3? G9? F : N 7 X6 7OU ? J H O P 2 H S F 2 d Qd? H O P 2 Victor plays the piano. N? 2 W?7 F Q98 3H G9?7 JO P7 G3?26 G 75 Q 2 G Oe Q I 78E H H 79 E 78E 7T 5? [1] 8P [2] 9 7 2 75? GX2 T 5 H 8 P H G O P 2 7 R J N 26 EF S F 2 9 6 H3 N7X 8P X 6 G9?VW? H 7 N 75? GXV N dKF F 798H I7OU V8 X ? O P 2 F HN T 2 W?N? 98 3H G9?7 JO P7 G3? 26 G Q G 75 X I 2 W?N? 98 2 6 2 H F G 6 2 75? GX9 E 6 H S 73H G H 9 E 6 N 8H ? G3? 72 P9 73 98 H P N P 75 G WO QQ EF X G Q 2 73H 75 73 8P73 3
4
R73H 7N X 2 d Qd? N?7T 2 9 N 2 2 N F VW?75 EF 7 H I H 2 d Qd? WHG 2 ? O P 2 F75 N? 75 H S F 8H I FXP 6 2 75? GX N? H S 9 VW? H H2:? 72 7 F Q2 T P9 H H H SG O P 2 K 98 3H G9?7 J 2 W? N? H 2 W?G 98 5 7 dKF W? N? N 3 8P 3H G9? 7 JG3? N? H f8 N 8PJW ? 9!*? +- ? @" A > A ! '@ 9 E 78H I 7 F ? X T X 26 (word) 8P O P7 5 26 (word class) X I XK 5 Q O WH9 H (unit) FG9 H5KI 8P 8 Qd Qd? 5KI 2E 8 (phrase) :O P 2 (clause) 8P O P 2 (sentence) 86 N Q G H8P H 98 S798H I XP2 Q28: 7 EI 9 98 9 ? H 7 EF X I QQ N Q2 75? GXdKF 6 5KI 7TEF 3H G9?VW? H J N Q 2 75? GXG H8P9 5? H FXP H Q H O '!/ ! : +_>4 > A ! '@ 9 E 78H IG3? 8 O F OG G3?98 N 6 72 EF 9 N X FO P 2 FV N98 (9 E G3?26 Q EF S) 73H *the woman old the chicken cooked. G Q R 5? 7 F Q QO P 2 9 E 26 Q 7 N G9?79R JK 5? N? G3?72 EF 9 26 J (question mark) N I ?An ill dog 7 G3?72 EF 9 "~" G 2 9 H o 2 7O8 F 7OU p 73H He broke my glasses. ~ My glasses were broken by him. 7N N 6 H 5 f 9 ~ H 5 f JW 6 G9?9 N 7N N
Linguistic Grammar Of English
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' !/ 9 ? 26 6 Q F 1 Q F 2 Q F 3 Q F 4 Q F 5 Q F 6 Q F 7 Q F 8 Q F 9 Q F 10 Q F 11 Q F 12 Q F 13 Q F 14 Q F 15 Q F 16 Q F 17 Q F 18
3t5 O P7 5 26 26 26 T 26 6 9 ? 26 26 2: T
26 7
26 Q:TQ O P7 5 73EF 2 G3? Existential there 8 :O P 2 8PO P 2 O P 2 PN Q5 I 26 8 :O P 2 8PO P 2 72 P9 Q Q 7 9 E P (Theta t role/Q-role) X (Voice) 26 : Q TEI 8P G3?
2V 98H ?
6
7 t 14 15 t 31 32 t 42 43 t 52 53 t 79 80 t 109 110 t 118 119 t 120 121 t 125 126 t 129 130 t 142 143 t 158 159 t 164 165 t 207 208 t 213 214 t 228 229 t 233 234 t 262 263 t 265 266 t 370
+_A `_
a 3?. = 26 7OU 9 H 78R S F7OU TEI 5 O P 2 N I 7 XP7 F N? T X F 798H I 8 T X 8:H 26 G O P 2 H O I My brother drives a big car. T F3 5 f 5 Q J 2 G9 H 7 JQ N? G H 26 brother 8P car 7OU 26 O P7 7N 8P brother 8P drives 7OU 26 H O P7 N? 79 : IXK 9 2 H 26 brother 8P car 7OU 26 3 N7N G 6 7N 7 EF 7 Q H 26 brother 8P drives 7OU 26 H O P7 7 R Q H I 26 X N WHG 3 N5 26 F H 7 X6 3 N5 26 7OU 7 3 N98 N? H Verb 26
Act, Ask, Be, Beat, Come, Catch, Dive, Drive, Go, Grow, Sail, Sing, Thank, Think
Noun 26
Action, Application, Bangkok, Boom, Brother, Car, Cat, David, Dara, Home, House, London, New Delhi, New York, Table
Determiner A, An, Any, Many, My, Several, Few, A Few, Some, The 26 6 9 ? Adjective 26 2: T
Apt, Active, Bad, Big, Fat, Foolish, Happy, Hopeless, Tired, Talented, Tidy
Linguistic Grammar Of English
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Adverb 26 7
Angrily, Beautifully, Crazily, Happily, Recently, Sadly, Soon, Suddenly
Preposition 26 2: T
Above, At, Below,Including, In, Of, On, Over, Under, With, Without
Conjunctions And, Because, But, If, Or, Nor, Still, So, For, Yet 26 73EF XP79R N? H G 9 E 98 EF S XX6 3 N5 26 ? H X I 8P X Q 5 Q75 5 H8P3 N5 26 ? H O Q 78H 26 T (pronoun) X N? Q X6 ?7 OU 3 N26 9 KF G 5 P F G 9 E 78H I 7 X6 ? 7 OU 3 N H (subclass)5 26 2 H G X6 N 8H H H XP7OU 79 :G9?7 N Q H H GN H 8 Q7 ? 2 6 2 5 98 F7 H ogradiencep dKF 9 JK 5 Q75 3 N5 26 I H 6 9 N ? QQ 3 N5 26 98 3 N 2: 8 PQ O P 79 E Q 3 N 26 EF Q 3 N 26 Q d? J 8H H 9 KF N? H 5 Q75 798H I 2 o28: 72 E WHp N I 98 H8P78H XK 6 9 N5 Q75 H O G 9 E I XP 8H JK 3 N5 26 98 H8P3 N X I XP 8H JK 3 N5 26 (minor word class) T 75O G 86 N Q 7 XP T X H H N F O 7 XP JX6 3 N5 26 H8P3 N N? H
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? j > 9= # 4 * = 7 F X X N 8:H 26 N TEI 7N N? 79 :V8Q H 7 XP o W? K p N? H 26 H brother 8P car WHG 26 3 N 7N 8P 26 H brother 8P drives WHG 3 N5 26 H 3 N H R 7TEF G9? J K 98 H X X N? 7 ? F 73EF JE N? 8P 98 7 M H I 7TEF X6 3 N5 26 H S 9 E 78H IXPG3? V V 5 7 M 3 7 M G 3 I7fT P 3 N5 26 H8P26 N I 1. 2 9 5 26 2. WO QQ 9 E o WO H p 5 26 3. 6 9 H 9 E o F N8? p 5 26 G O P 2 1. , A G G3? 7 M I 7 T X ? SX 3 N 5 2 9 F 26 798H I EF 73H 7 JX N 8:H 26 brother 8P car I David house 8P Bangkok N G3?7 M F H 26 798H I7OU 26 7 F Q 2 J F 9 E F 5 2 X I7OU N I 7N F G3?G X6 8:H 26 G 3 N 8:H 26 (class of nouns) X I G3? Q26 N 8H H 26 (verbs) 7OU 26 F N G9?79R JK o P 6 p 73H 26 cook, drive, eat, run, shout, walk N 8H TQ H 5? N H 79R N? 3 N 7 EF X 6 G9? 7 J X6 3 N5 26 N F26 G O P 2N? 26 F 2 9 oG 8?72 p 73H G O P 2 my son cooks dinner every Sunday. 7 JG3?26 F N o P 6 p EF S 26 6cooks7 N? N I My son cooks dinner every Sunday. 8W 3 5 f 6 9 7 R :
Linguistic Grammar Of English
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My son prepares dinner every Sunday. 8W 3 5 f 7 9 7 R :
My son eats dinner every Sunday. 8W 3 5 f QO P 9 7 R :
My son misses dinner every Sunday. 8W 3 5 f T8 N 9 7 R :
Q TEI 5 N Q F 26 5? ? J : O N? H 26 I 9 N WH G 3 N 5 26 7N 8H 2E 7OU 26 N o P 6 p 9 E 26 F 7 H R I 5? X6 N 72 H 2 N WHQ? 26 X6 N2 5 26 G P F7 OU 26 9 KF 26 N JK Q:228 J F 9 E F 5 I H7T T 7 EF X H N? JK 26 (abstract noun) 73H time, imagination, repetition, wisdom 8P chance G 6 7N 8H H 26 7OU 26 F N o P 6 p F H JK 26 be 7 EF X G O P 2 I want to be happy. 26 be Q o P 6 p P N I ? H 7 M XP N?V8 F 3 N7X 7 EF G3? Q26 Q 26 7 R 2 ? G3?7 M EF F2 Q28: N? H I N? 2. a# A @ l a m n = 26 Q 26 JX N75? O WHG 3 N5 26 N WHQ TEI 5 WO QQ 9 E o WO H p 5 26 73H 26 98 26 2: 8 P8 ? N? 8tion 73H Action, Condition, Contemplation, Demonstration, Organization, Repetition G 6 7N 26 2: T (adjectives) 98 26 8 ? N? t able 9 E tible 73H Acceptable, Credible, Miserable, Responsible, Suitable, Terrible
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9 8 26 F J7O8 F O8 N? 9 E 7 H inflections ( PX 26 ) I 2E 7O8 F WO O 7 EF 5 F 6 9 N ? 73H 26 J7O8 F WO7OU T9WTX 6 N? N 7 ts ? ? 26 73H Car -- Cars Dinner -- Dinners Book -- Books 26 R J 7O8 F O8 N?73H 7N 73H Walk -- Walks -- Walked -- Walking 3. 2= #A m A @ l' _ #,* n = > a 307 M I9 JK 26 I WH F H GN5 O P 2 8P3 N5 26 H S F WHG 8?72 Q26 I H H S H O I XP3H G9?7 75? GX G3?7 M I N? H 5KI 5 G9?7O Q7 Q H I [1] I cook dinner every Sunday. 6 9 7 R :
[2] The cook is on holiday. TH 2 WH P9 H 9 :NT VH G H [1] cook 7OU 26 HG H [2] 7OU 26 7 Q cook G H [1] 7OU 26 7T P H J7O8 F O8 N?dKF 8 P7fT P5 26 73H I cook dinner every Sunday. f 6 9 7 R :
I cooked dinner last Sunday. f 6 9 7 R 7 EF F 8? I am cooking dinner today. f 6 8 6 9 7 R 5 I My son cooks dinner every Sunday. 8W 3 5 f 6 9 7 R :
Linguistic Grammar Of English
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XP79R N? H 26 cook G H [2] 7OU 26 7 EF X J 7O8 F O8 7OU T9WTX (plural) N? 7 ts N? N I The cooks are on holiday. Q N TH 2 WH P9 H 9 :NT VH 9 ? 7 JG3? N Q F26 7 M F9 KF F 8H 8? N F26 cook G H8PO P 2N? 26 F 2 9 G 8?72 O N 7 H 7 XP F26 N? 26 8P F26 N? 26 H7 H J F26 N? 26 9 E F26 N? 26 * I chef dinner every Sunday. f 6 9 7 R :
* the eat is on holiday. QO P 9 5KI G 9 :N
7 2 ? 75? GXG9?3 N7X H H XP H 2 T QQ H P9 H 26 H S Q3 N5 26 26 H cook J7OU N? I 26 8P 26 dKF 5KI WH Q H 26 I XPJW 6 G3? H G 2 7OU X 8? 26 98 S26 JX N G9? WH N? G 3 N 5 26 H 9 KF 3 N N H H O I She looks very pale. (verb) 7 NWd N7d ( ) She's very proud of her looks. (noun) 7 2 W GXG 8 P F H NW5 7 ( )
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He drives a fast car. (adjective) 75 5 Q J ( F 72 EF ) (2: T ) He drives very fast on the motorway. (adverb) 75 5 Q J 7 R Q NH Turn on the light. (noun) 7OÂ&#x201E;N Â&#x2026;G9?9 H ( ) I'm trying to light the fire. (verb) f 6 8 T X:N Â&#x2026; ( ) I usually have a light lunch. (adjective) f QO P 9 8 3 N 9 7Q S ? (2: T ) XP79R N? H 26 FT T N? 9 E 7 JX N N? H 9 KF 3 N5 26 H R G G3?26 H8P2 I 7 XPX N ?7T 3 N7N dKF 5KI WH Q H XP 6 OG3? H N I XK HJW ? 9 XP 8H H 26 cook 7OU 26 H7 ? 8H H cook 7OU 26 G O P 2 I cook dinner every Sunday. H cook 7OU 26 G O P 2 The cook is on holiday. X 7 M G X6 3 N5 26 I 3 7 M F N? 8H 8? 98 XP7 ? F7 M F 8P 2E WO QQ5 26 8P 6 9 H 26 8P9 ? FG O P 2
Linguistic Grammar Of English
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4 * = ?ao*# 3 = ao* 26 Q 3 N7OU 26 QQ7OÂ&#x201E;N 8H 2E J7T F 26 75? OG 26 N?7 EF ? 73H 26 7OU ? 7OU 26 F H F I :N 7 EF X 5 26 F Q
G9 H H H 7 EF 7 EF X 2? TQ F G9 HS
T a V8 M 3 NG9 H 8P 2? TQ 2 2 NG9 HS N 73H G 3H O8 5 F 20 26 7 N5KI G9 H X T a 7 2 8 N? 2 T 7 73H Internet, Website, Url, Cd-Rom, Email, Newsgroup, Bitmap, Modem, Multimedia X I 26 G9 HJW 6 G3?N? 73H Download, Upload, Reboot, Right-Click, Double-Click, Multi-tasking 3 N5 26 2: T (adjective class) 7 (adverb class) R J 5 N?N? 7T F 26 G9 HS75? O ? H X X6 ? H R G 5? 26 Q: TQ (prepositions) 26 FQH Q 8P 6 9 N 26 (determiners) 9 E 26 (conjunctions) 26 798H I JK 26 73H of the 8P but XK 7 H 26 OÂ&#x201E;N (closed word classes) 7 EF X 26 798H I JW ? 5KI 7OU 8:H 26 FX6 N 8P H 5 7T F ( ? H XP 26 Q 26 7O8 F P N26 7 EF 8? ) 3 N5 26 T H (subclass of pronouns) dKF WH G ?3 N5 26 QQ7OÂ&#x201E;N R7OU 26 QQOÂ&#x201E;N 26 H SG 8:H 26 7OÂ&#x201E;N W?X G open-class items. H 26 F WHG 8:H 26 OÂ&#x201E;N W?X G closed-class items
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+_'
= 7 EF 8H JK 26 7 K JK 26 F7OU o Q 3EF p N 7fT P7OU 3EF 5 o2 J F 9 E F 5 p 26 73H Jane Bangkok Thailand 8P computer 7OU O 26 Q 5? ? H 3 N 5 26 I ? 78 7 N 26 JQH Q N?JK 2 2 N F7 OU 8P H J V R N? 73H birth, happiness, evolution technology, management , imagination, revenge, politics, hope, cookery , sport, literacy.... 7 EF X ? F H 8P98 98 73H I XK H2H XP7 N O P 3 9 7 XP K 7 F Q26 7T 7TEF ? Q2 9 7 H I 9 7 XP9 T X 26 798H IX 2: 8 P H JW ? 5 N? H XP7 NO P 3 H ! : 3 = 26 98 26 J 7 N?X 8 ? 5 26 (ending) 8 ? 26 O P QN? -er/-or Actor, Boxer, Editor, Painter, Plumber, Writer -ism
Communism,Criticism, Buddhism, Egotism, Magnetism, Vandalism
-ist
Artist, Capitalist, Journalist, Scientist
-ment Arrangement, Development, Establishment, Government -tion
Foundation, Organisation, Recognition, Supposition
Linguistic Grammar Of English
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26 H G9 H WO QQ7fT P 7OU 26 WO7 TX (singular) 8P T9WTX (plural) WOT9WTX 5 26 N F O 6 N?N? 7 ts F ? 26 WO7 TX
? 9 A 9 Apple
Apples
Ant
Ants
Bee
Bees
Boy
Boys
Girl
Girls
Cat
Cats
Dog
Dogs
House
Houses
Car
Cars
Book
Books
H R 26 98 26 F H N? 6 G9?7OU WOT9WTX N 8H 73H ? 9 A 9
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Man
Men
Child
Children
Sheep
Sheep
? 9 A 9 Deer
Deer
Woman Women Datum
Data
Crisis
Crises
Thesis
Theses
Analysis Analyses 2 H P9 H 7 TX 8P T9WTX I 7 H , #2 2m
3A,m 9= , (number contrast) 7 J 7 N? H 26 98 26 7OU 26 7T P26 798H I the a 9 E an WH9 ? 26 73H The car The cat An artist An apple The scientist A surprise The egg The ox A review A banana 26 798H I7 H = m 4+" (determiner) dKF XP7OU 26 3 N H O F7 XP K
Linguistic Grammar Of English
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26 X 72 EF 9 N 2 7OU 7X? 5 -'s ("apostrophe s") 9 E genitive marker 7TEF N 2 7OU 7X? 5 73H The boy's pen O 5 7 NR VW? 3 A spider's web G 5 : My girlfriend's brother T F 3 5 Â&#x2026; 5 V Dhirawit's house Q? 5
G F26 I 8 ? N? ts 7TEF N 2 7OU T9WTX WH 8? genitive marker XPG3?7fT P apostrophe 98 26 F7OU T9WTX 7 H I 73H The boys' pens O 5 7NR VW?3 98 2 The spiders' webs G 5 : 98 The Pinyonatthagarns' house Q? 5 2 Q2
2 P H Q G G3? genitive marker Q G3? 's G G3? 26 QQ H (contracted verbs) 73H O P 2 john's a good boy (= john is a good boy). Q 26 H ? N 2 7OU 7X? 5 (genitive marker) 2 F 8 73H Rally car Table top Cheese grater Entrance Examination
J 88 F TEI Â&#x2020;P F5WN7 5R University Q75? 9 8
dKF XP 8H JK G 8P7 N H OG Q F7 F Q 8 (noun phrase)
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, ' - # 3' - 26 F PQ:2 9 E J F H 7fT P7X PX 7 H (proper noun) 73H Sumi Akrawit Akraporn John Mary Bangkok Thailand New york USA England London H R 3EF 7fT P JO P QN? 26 H 9 KF 26 N? 73H King Bhumibol Queen Sirikit Southeast Asia Indian Ocean Grand Palace X9 2 JK 7 8 9 E G Oe N? 73H January, February, Monday, Tuesday, Christmas, Thanksgiving
Linguistic Grammar Of English
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H 26 EF S 8? 7OU (common noun) 7 EF X 9 JK F 5 9 E 2 H 7fT P7X PX N I XK H2H G3?26 798H I7OU T9WTX H R R J 6 N? 7 EF 8H JK X6 N? 73H There are three Narees in my class 2 3EF 2 G 9? 7 5 f We met two Christmases ago 7 TQ 7 EF 2 2 I FVH N? 79 :V87N 3EF 2 8P J F H G3? the 9 E a/an 6 9 ? ? H 3EF 798H I XP WHG J P F N 2 7fT P7X PX R 73H It's nothing like the America I remember. H F GN79 E 7 Ff X6 N?78 My brother is an Einstein at maths. T F3 5 f 7 H 79 E G 3 2
# *' , ? >9 9 +*?' >2 = > , 2m pa +" Today is another occasion on which the rector is required to report himself in front of you all. It is customary to meet each other once a year when the university completes its yearly return. However, this year marks a more meaningful year for us as the university has completed the ninth year of its operation and now is entering its tenth year, which will be the full first decade for Suranaree University of Technology in the year 2000.
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We should take this opportunity to review our past and challenge the future, or as it is popularly phrased, "looking back and further ahead" toward the second decade. The year 2000 should be the appropriate time for us to build a brighter and better future for SUT and usher it in a more fruitful and meaningful future during its coming second decade.
= ! : 3 > . : ! ;: 8P 2 28? 28K WHO P 9 KF G 7 EF G3?26 Q 8 P (quantifier) ? H 26 Q 8 P G XP H 8 Qd Qd? 7 H Q H R H GXGÂ&#x2C6;Â&#x2030; W? WH H ? 26 Q 8 P G F H W? H XNX6 7TEF 6 OG3? H JW ? N I 10 a wad of banknotes Q OÂ&#x160; 9 KF a cake of soap QWH ? 9 KF a bar of chocolate 3R 8 H 9 KF a tablet of aspirin T 7 RN9 KF a bite of food 9 26 9 KF a gulp of beer 7Q K 9 KF a bolt of cloth V? ? 9 KF a reel of film Â&#x2026;Â&#x201E;8 ? 9 KF a pod of peas J F Â&#x2C6;Â&#x2039; 9 KF a lump of sugar I6 8 ? 9 KF
Linguistic Grammar Of English
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22
20 a column of smoke a ring of smoke; a pinch of salt a bead of sweat a wink of sleep a clod or lump of earth a scrap of paper a clap of thunder a shower of rain a sheet of paper
7 8E N9 KF 79 EF 7 RN9 KF 98 Q Q9 KF N ? 9 KF 7 PN 3 I 9 KF Â&#x2026;Â? 8Q O8Q9 KF Â&#x2C6; dWH9 KF PN VH G9 H VH 9 KF
30 a slip of paper a segment of orange a spray of diamonds a side of beef a round of boxing a whiff of scent a flight of stairs a sliver of glass a splinter of a bomb
PN 3 I 78R 3 I 9 KF ? 8 Q9 KF 7T3 ( 6 7OU 3H ) 3H 9 KF 7 EI d 9 KF 9 KF 8 F I6 9 F 3 f: 9 KF Q N N9 KF 7 ? 3 I 9 KF 7 P7Q N3 I 9 KF
40 a shot of vaccine a breath of air a gust of wind a helping of food
f 2d 75R 9 KF 8 T N 9 KF 8 FT N P 3 2 I 9 KF 9 F9 KF
2 FT:H 5KI O7OU 86 86 9 KF 2 F ? 8 5KI O 8:H 9 KF
40 a tongue of fire a splash of soda a blob of paint a speck of dirt a gob of snot a gob of spittle
Â&#x2026; 8Q 9 KF f N dN 8 O2 I 9 KF 9 N9 KF X:N O X:N9 KF 5 I W ? 9 KF 7 9P9 E I6 8 FQ? 9 KF
50 a grain of salt a grain of rice a snatch of a song a stroke of luck a streak of madness a gleam of hope a flicker of hope a bar of music a link in the chain
7 8E 7 RN9 KF 5? 7 8RN9 KF 7T8 H 9 KF 32 6 2 I 9 KF 78E NQ? V WH O P 9H 2 O P 9H 2 9 7 7T8 H 9 KF 9H 9 KF G dH
60 a spell of cold a wave of enthusiasm a round of applause a pack or deck of cards a grain of sand a clot of blood a jot of blood a leg of a journey a lap of a race
2 9 T 9 KF 2 dWHdH T 9 KF 7 O Q E 9 9 KF TH 6 Q9 KF 7 RN9 KF 78E N ? 9 KF 78E N9 N9 KF 3H 9 KF 5 7N F 5H Q9 KF 5
Linguistic Grammar Of English
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70 a hail of questions a snatch of conversation a tinge of envy 78R ? a cake of soap a dose of medicine a draught of cold beer a draught of happiness a slug of whiskey a sip of brandy a veil of mist 80 a film of oil a burst of fire a peal of laughter a ripple of laughter a pencil of light a shred of evidence a ray of hope a clap of thunder a plume of smoke a pall of smoke 90 A mouthful of food; A strand of rope
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26 J FT F T W 2 9 KF 7 2: H 9 KF 2 Xf P2 WHN? QW H ? 9 KF FG9? 2 I 9 KF 7Q 7 R FNEF F9 KF 2 :5 F N? Q3 F 5 P9 KF I Â&#x2020; 9 KF Q F N X Q9 KF H 9 Q S
I6 F8 7OU Â&#x2C6; OÂ&#x17D; F PN 3:N9 KF 7 9 7 P H 2 EI 2 F 2 I 9 KF
7 9 7 P7OU 7 W F6 F O
86 9 E T T 98 7T 78R ? 8WH 9H 2 9 7 Â&#x2026;Â? N 7O I 2 I 9 KF 2 F8 5KI 8 P28? 5 2 9 EN28:? 6 G9? P H79R
9 26 9 KF 73E 7 8 9 KF
A plait of hair A lock of hair; A blast of whistle A blast of wind A blare of trumpets A touch of irony A shaft of light A scoop of water in the jar 100 a hack of cough a spot of lunch a snippet of news a pack of lies a roll of names a cube of sugar a peal of laughter a smack of the lips a smack on the lips a hand of cards 110 a change of clothes a shade of meaning a pat on the back a blow of the nose a twang of the guitar a stick of chalk
V 7O[ 9 KF V 5 N9 KF 7 9 NO Â?N9 KF 8 FT N P 3 9 KF 7 OÂ? 9 KF TWNG 6 N N 78R ?
86 9 KF I6 5 9 KF 9 E PQ 9 KF
2R 9 KF QO P 9 8 78R ?
5H 3 I 78R 3 I ? 3 I 9 KF 7 EF 9 N H Q 3 3EF I6 8 ? ? 9 KF 7 Â&#x2018; 2 E 2 I 9 KF 7 NWNO N? 2 H 2 I 9 KF
XWQO N XÂ&#x2020; Q9 KF TH FJE WHG E 2 I 9 KF
7 EI V? F7 OV8 N3:N9 KF 2 9 FV N7T I O78R ?
Q98 9 KF F 5 I W 9 KF N N 9 KF 3 8 H 9 KF
Linguistic Grammar Of English
25
a swab of the throat a torrent of abuse a crack of the whip a glimpse of somebody
N2 2 I 9 KF 7 NH FO PN 7 9 N ?5 Q9 KF 79R 2 Q9 KF
120 a stack of papers a sheet of paper a scrap of paper a scrap of evidence a colony of ants a plot of land a jet of steam a bunch of keys a facet of diamond a point of departure
PN I 9 KF PN VH 9 KF 7 PN 3 I 9 KF T 98 N9 KF N 9 KF FN VE 9 KF I6 FT8:H 9 KF 8W : XT 9 K F 798 F 7T3 798 F 9 KF X:N7 F ?
130 a point of view a point of honor a rumble of the stomach a frame of mind a cast of mind a splotch of ink a smear of paint a camp of politicians a splinter group of politicians a shock of hair
26
H2 N 5? FJ E 7OU 7 EF 6 2 7 F Q7
7 ? ? TX GX3 F 2 WH 8 PX GX GX2 7OÂ&#x17D;Â&#x2019; 9 K 7OÂ&#x17D;Â&#x2019; 8:H 7 E 8:H 9 KF 8:H 7 E F
V 7OU P7d
140 a mint of money a spasm of coughing a spatter of rain a waft of scent a blanker of snow a burst of gunfire a burst of applause a slice of meat a slice of the profit a wink of sleep
150 a spot of trouble a spark of generosity a shift of workmen a nod of approval a knot of people a tube of toothpaste a truckload of people a bed of roses a branch of a bank a piece of news
X6 7 X 2 I 9 KF Â&#x2C6; 7O P OP3 F 2 WH 8 F 9 F 3 9 P F 8 28: 9H P : 2 I 9 KF Q E 2 I 9 KF 7 EI 7fE Q S 3 I 9 KF H QH V8 6 X6 9 KF 98 Q Q9 KF
7 EF 7NE N ? 78R ? 9H 2 Q ? 2 V8 N9 KF V 9 N H 79R 3 QN?
2 F WH 8:H 9 KF Â&#x2026;Â&#x2039; 98 N9 KF 2 2 J9 KF :98 Q O8 9 KF 5 2 5H 7 EF 9 KF
Linguistic Grammar Of English
27
160 a handful of spectators a sprinkling of spectators a spate of orders a flush of the pan a panel of judges a pack of liars a packer of cigarettes a box of matches a flurry of punches a flourish of trumpets 170 a ring of sincerity a cornet of ice-cream a feat of strength a nest of crime a den of thieves a shower of stones a shower of honors a flake of snow a bubble of soap a pool of blood
28
2 NW9 Q E 7N 2 NW9 R 9 R GQ F 2? FT F T W 2 9 KF
3 2 9 KF N 2 P9 KF 2 9 98 I 5 Q:9 Fd 9 KF ?5 N Â&#x2026; 8 9 KF 9 N2 9 KF 7OÂ&#x2030; 7OU T ?
I6 7 Â&#x2026;Â&#x2039; NW 8? H 73EF H X GX
9 KF N T8 9 8 X dH 9 KF dH X dH 9 KF PN 5 ? O N? 9 98 7 5 7 3EF 7
9 P7 8RN9 KF Â&#x2026; QWHÂ&#x2026; 9 KF 78E N 9 KF
180 a trail of blood a hive of bees a stain of blood a stain of nicotine a sheet of glass a sheet of paper a band of rubber a stroke of the hammer a stroke of the sword a twist of paper 185 a gush of oil a gush of anger a prick of conscience a grain of comfort a shadow of doubt
78E N7OU VKI 9 KF 2 Q78E N 2 Q 2 X WQQ:9 F VH PX 5 NG9 H VH 9 KF VH PN 5 NG9 H VH 9 KF
N7 ? 9 KF 7 2? 9 KF 7 N QÂ&#x2026;Â&#x2039; O 9 KF 9H PN dKF Q N FO8 I 5?
I6 FT8:H 2 I 9 KF 2 FT8:H 5KI T 9 KF 2 W? K H Q GX7T P2 N H 2 V N
2 PN Q GX ?7T 78R ?
H 5 2
! p* # 3 ! p mp* J7OU N? I Q N? (count noun) 8P Q H N?(non-count noun) Q N? 2E F J o QX6 N?p 73H One book, two books, three books, four books... Q H N? (non-count noun) G 5? 2E F H J QX6 H I N? one software, *two software, *three software, *four software...
Linguistic Grammar Of English
29
98 Q N? J WO7OU N? I 7 TX 8P T9WTX G 5 P F Q H N? WO7OU 7 TX N?7 H I F 9 2 H Q H N? XP H a/an 6 9 ? ! p* ! p mp* A pen
*a software
N O Q H N? 9 JK F 7F OU 8:H F QH X H N? N? 79 : I Q 2 I XK 7 H mass noun Q 26 J7OU N? I Q N? 8P Q H N? 5KI WH Q3 N5 ? (reference) F 73H G O P 2 I made a cake. Cake 7OU Q N? 8P a F WH5? 9 ? QH Q JK WO7 TX H R G O P 2 I like cake. ? F7fT P7X PX ? H 7 EF X 9 JK ocake F Op N I G O P 2 I XK 7OU Q H N?
30
# *' , ? >9 9
3 ,m = > #2m 3a 30- +_ +*?' >2 p, = >* ?aq ! p* A @ ! p mp* 1. The board will meet tomorrow to consider your application.
count
2. The information you gave to the detective was very misleading.
count
3. I thought it was a strange comment to make.
count
4. Smoking damages your health.
count
non-count
non-count
non-count
non-count 5. Jean is studying music at college.
count non-count
6. I'll have a brandy, please.
count non-count
Linguistic Grammar Of English
31
+_' = '
26 T (pronoun) 7OU 3 N26 H F 6 2 5 26 (major subclass of noun) F7 7 H 7OU 3 N26 H R7T PQ 2 I 7 JG3? 26 G O P 2 N? 73H =
= '
John got a new job. X 9 N? G9 H
~He got a new job. 75 N? G9 H
Children should watch less television. 7NR S2 8N NW 8
~They should watch less television. T 75 2 8N NW 8
G H 798H I26 T ? (reference)79 E Q26 F 75? O F G H8P T X9 JK 2 7 XK 7 H Q: : T (personal pronoun) H R 7 X NG9?26 T it 75? O WHG 8:H IN? ? H XP H2H G3?9 JK Q:228 R Q: : T 3 3 N H8P3 N WO I 7 TX 8PT9WTX
? 9
A 9
1st : +_ 1 I
We
2nd : +_ 2 You
You
3rd : +_ 3 He/she/it
They
26 T 798H I WO QQ9 KF N? N O eG I
32
? 9
A 9
1st : +_ 1
Me
Us
2nd : +_ 2
You
You
3rd : +_ 3
Him/her/it
Them
G W O QQ (I, you, he...) 6 9 ? F 7 OU O P 5 O P 2 (subjective case) QQ F (me, you, him...) 6 9 ? F7OU 5 O P 2 (objective case) 2 H P9 H 5KI WH Q 6 OG3?G O P 2 73H G H 5? ? XP79R N? H 7 G3? he F John John got a new job. ~He got a new job. H he H JG3? F John G O P 2 I gave John a new job. G O P 2 I7 ? G3?G WO 2E him 7OU O P 2 H I gave him a new job. = '
4 * @_ z G 6 7N Q26 T Q:228 26 T O P7 EF S N N? :O ? N I 4 *5 '
2!, -m '
2!, -m a 30-
Possessive '
?9
mine, yours, his, hers, ours, theirs
The white car is mine.
Reflexive '
2 ?
myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, oneself,
He injured himself playing football.
Linguistic Grammar Of English
33
4 *5 '
2!, -m '
2!, -m a 30-
ourselves, yourselves, themselves Reciprocal '
'3 !
each other, one another
They really hate each other.
Relative '
?4@_ ,
that, which, who, whose, whom, where, when
The book that you gave me was really boring.
Demonstrative '
m 4+" 4!*?9
this, that, these, those
This is a new car.
Interrogative '
= <
who, what, why, where, when, whatever
What did he say to you?
anything, anybody, Indefinite '
p m?9 39 anyone, something, somebody, There's something someone, nothing, in my shoe. nobody, none, no one
34
2 H N? WO26 8PX6 H JG3? N? Q26 T : 3 N HG3? QQ: : T T N 2 7OU 7X? 5 8P T P ? 7 7 H I X I T 798H I 7 H I F PQ: 2 H 7T (Q: : T 2E he/she T N 2 7OU 7X? 5 73H his/hers T 7 73H himself/herself) 6 9 Q T 3 N EF S H 7O8 F O8 WO 26 T 98 26 F PQ: ?5? ? X N WHG 8:H 3 N26 EF 2E 3 N 26 6 9 ? QQ QQQH 3 I (determiners) dKF 7OU T 7 EF G3?7N F S I 2E H 26 98 73H G O P 2 This is a new car. H7 EF GN F 26 98 73H G O P 2This car is new. 26 798H IXP7OU 26 QH 3 I dKF XP N? 8H JK G H O 2 H F 6 2 P9 H 26 T Q26 N F O2E 26 T XP H the 9 E a/an WH5? 9 ? X I 26 T XP H 26 2: T WH5? 9 ? 7 ? FO P 2 26 5 F7 F 5? Q26 T H7X PX 73H a little something, a certain someone G 5 P F3 N5 26 G T 7OU 3 N26 7OÂ&#x201E;N 26 T dKF 7OU 3 N26 H I JE 7OU 3 N26 OÂ&#x201E;N
Linguistic Grammar Of English
35
# *' , ? >9 9
3 ,m = '
+_ +*?' >2 p, > #2m 3a 30- m +" ,m ?aq = '
4 *>* ( +*?' >2 2!, +_? @ )
36
1. Let's contact one another once we've made some progress.
personal reflexive possessive relative indefinite reciprocal interrogative
2. She wants to do it herself.
personal reflexive possessive relative indefinite reciprocal interrogative
3. I can't find them.
personal reflexive possessive relative indefinite reciprocal interrogative
4. I can't believe it's finally ours.
personal reflexive possessive relative indefinite reciprocal interrogative
5. The girl who usually cuts my hair has won the lottery.
personal reflexive possessive relative indefinite reciprocal interrogative
6. He wants to go to Bangkok.
personal reflexive possessive relative indefinite reciprocal interrogative
7. Why are you shouting at me?
personal reflexive possessive relative
Linguistic Grammar Of English
37
indefinite reciprocal interrogative
38
8. Jane gave me the last copy.
personal reflexive possessive relative indefinite reciprocal interrogative
9. Nobody said a word all night.
personal reflexive possessive relative indefinite reciprocal interrogative
9= , X6 (numerals)9 I X6 H H XP7OU 9 E 785 J QH N?7OU 2 O P7 G9 HS X6 N (cardinal numerals) O P QN? 26 H S 73H Zero, nought, one, two, 3, fifty-six, 100, a thousand 8P X6 Q 86 N Q F (ordinal numerals) O P QN? First(1st), second(2nd), 3rd(third), 4th(fourth), 500th 7 X6 X6 G9?7OU 8:H H 5 26 7 EF X G J G3? X X6 798H I J WO7OU T9WTX N? 73H Five twos are ten X6 9? 2 I 7 H Q Q He's in his eighties. 75 WHG : ON QO[ 8P J the 6 9 ? N? 73H The fourth of July F F7NE L 2 ( 3 7 ) A product of the 1960s. V8 M G 3H F 1960 8PX6 G WOT9WTX Q J 26 2: T 6 9 ? N? 73H 7N Q 26 EF S 73H The house was built in the late 1960s Q? 98 I ? 5KI 3H O8 F 1960 He's in his early twenties 75 WHG F Q ? S The temperature is in the high nineties : 9 W WHG PN Q7 E Q7 ? Q
Linguistic Grammar Of English
39
G H8P H JG3?X6 N? H P N H ? 26 98 G3? G 6 9 H 798H I 7 JX6 X6 798H I G 9? 7 OU 26 3 N9 KF 7T P H J 6 9 ? FG 8?72 Q26 N? X I 5? 7 H 7 JG3? X6 N? N O eG H He is in his eighties. NO PQRSTUVWQP QXYZ[\]^Z_
~He is in his bedroom. NO PQRSTU`aP UPU\SVUbWV
The fourth of July. VWU cd\cdN[ePUfgfh i
~The beginning of July. baUN[ePUfgfh i
A product of the 1960s. ~A product of the revolution. V8 M G 3H F 1960 jk]blWmnoTUQXif gZp]VWb] X6 HG3?7N F SQH G3? H 26 73H one day 9 KF three pages 9 ? the fourth day of July F F5 7NE L 2 G G3? G 6 9 H 73H I 7 X6 X6 7OU 26 QH 3 I (determiner) dKF XP N Q G3? H O ? % = 7T 5 26 (gender of noun) Q Q 6 2 G 98 5 Q 73H Â&#x2C6; F 7 26 7T 3 JG3? N? Q26 2: T F7OU WO 6 9 Q7T 3 7 H I 9 26 7OU 7T 9 26 2: T FG3? ?7OU 26 7N RXP WHG WO F H 8H 2E ? G3?7OU WO7T 9
40
H R 6 9 QG N 5 26 7 26 H WO 7OU 7T 3 9 E 9 XK H 7 T ? H Q 2 I X 8H JK 2 9 E F7OU 7T 3 9 E 9 9 E 7T VW? 9 E 7T 7 73H The waiter is very prompt. ~The waitress is very prompt. qUWf UN\]gors QQ H gV[NgtV qUWf UN\]gor`u] Q H N7 R The lion roars at night. \] vbNqwjRa ? 26 G 8 2E
~The lioness roars at night. \] vbNqwN cQ ? 26 G 8 2E
2 H G P N26 N 2 H 7T H H 2 7 F 7 EF 73H G3? WO26 2: T 7N H H XP 8H JK a waiter 9 E a waitress 73H An efficient waiter ~An efficient waitress qUWf UN\]gors Q F 2 J qUWf UN\]gor`u] F 2 J G 6 7N 2 H 3 F P ? G9?79R 7OU 8 P2WH 73H brother/sister, nephew/niece, 8P king/queen R H V8 G 5 P F26 798H I PQ:7T 5 26 F H H R HG3H 26 7T 3 9 E 9 G 7 H R 7T V8G 78E G3?Q: : T G G3? F 26 73H Tong is late. ~He is late. Â&#x2013; 3?
75 3?
Linguistic Grammar Of English
41
Marisa is late. ~She is late. 3? 7 3? Tong is late. ~He is late. Â&#x2013; 3? 75 3? Marisa is late. ~She is late. 3? 7 3? H 5? 8H I 26 T X6 7T 5 Q:228 F 8H JK H R 7 EF Q:228G O P 27O8 F 7OU WOT9WTX H7 N2 H F WO5 T Tong and Marisa are late. ~They are late. byP 8P g]\ 3? qVfNO 3? John and David are late. P`oU 8PN[V][ 3?
~They are late. qVfNO 3?
Mary and Jane are late. Y gc d 8PN U 3?
~They are late. qVfNO 3?
2 H 7T N G9? 7 9R 3 N 7X G T 7X? 5 (his/hers) 8P T 7 (himself/herself) 7 EF H 6 X6 7T G3? 8H 2E 7 EF 7 8H JK F H 3 7 XPG3?26 T it F I The letter arrived late. ~It arrived late. [` Q JK 3? WU JK 3?
42
+_'+_ = = A 26 26 the, a, 9 E an 6 9 ? 26 798H I7 H 26 QH 3 I (determiner) 26 798H IXPQH Q 3 N2 T 5 26 26 QH 3 I the 7OU F W?X G 26 2: T QQ7fT P7X PX (definite article) JG3? 6 9 ? N? I 26 7 TX 8PT9WTX 73H 7 TX
T9WTX
the taxi
the taxis
the paper the papers the apple the apples 26 QH 3 I a (9 E an 7 EF 26 F 98 5KI ? N? T 3 P F7OU 7 P) 7 H 26 2: T QQ H7fT P7X PX 8PG3? 6 9 ? 26 Q N? F7OU 7 TX 73H a taxi a paper an apple 26 the 8P a/an 7OU 26 QH 3 I F S O H 26 3 N7N 73H any taxi that question those apples this paper Linguistic Grammar Of English
43
some apple whatever taxi whichever taxi 26 QH 3 IQ 26 F N O 73H all students both parents many people each person every night several computers few books enough money no excuses Q 2 I H S FXP N O 2E G3?X6 G H H O5 9 E 78H I 7 XP K X6 G P7OU 26 QH 3 I (9 E determiner) 9= , # 3 = m 4+" 9= , # 3 = m 4+" (numerals and determiner) X6 7OU 26 QH 3 I 7 EF G3? 6 9 ? 7 EF WHG 6 9 H N 8H X6 785 N (cardinal numerals) XP N X6 73H one book two books twenty books
44
7 EF WHG 6 9 H 7N X6 XP N 86 N Q 73H first impressions second chance third prize 3 N 26 H 5 X6 78586 N Q F JK 8:H 26 F H 7 F 5? N QX6 (73H first 7 F 5? Q one 8P second 7 F 5? Q two 7OU ? ) 26 798H I7 H X6 QQ86 N Q F F O (general ordinals) N JK 26 last, latter, next, previous, 8P subsequent N? 26 798H I R 6 9 ? F 7OU 26 QH 3 IN? 73H 73H next week last orders previous engagement subsequent developments 7 EF 26 798H I H N?G3? 6 9 ? 26 73H F7 79R 8? X6 798H I XP7OU 8:H 26 H 5 26 8P26 798H I J 26 QH 3 I N? 73H the two of us the first of many X I J X6 7OU 26 QH 3 I 6 9 ? N?N? 73H five twos are ten X H 5? ? twos 7OU 26 T9WTX 8P five 7OU 26 QH 3 I 6 9 ?
Linguistic Grammar Of English
45
# *' , ? >9 9 ? @ ,m = +_ +*?' >2 > #2m 3a 30- 2m pa +" ?aq 9= , A @ = m 4+" 1. Five twos are ten
numeral determiner
2. Seven is my lucky number
numeral determiner
3. Each team consists of eleven players
numeral
4. They've invited me to a second interview
numeral
5. He was the last to arrive, as usual
numeral
determiner
determiner
determiner XP79R N? H Qd? P9 H 3 N5 26 QH 3 I Q3 N H 5 26 T 26 98 26 F J7OU N? I 3 N 73H
46
Pronouns
Determiners
This is a very boring book. This book is very boring. That's an excellent film.
That film is excellent.
X 5? Q 26 QH 3 I WH H 26 H26 T 2 7OU P H I 26 T 798H I 6 9 ? F28? 26 8P JG3? 26 F N?N O P 2 H 5? ? This is a very boring book. ~Moonlabot is a very boring book. That's an excellent film.
~Witness is an excellent film.
G 5? 7 EF 26 798H IJW 6 OG3?7OU 26 QH 3 I H JG3? 26 F N? 73H This book is very boring. ~*Moonlabot book is very boring. That film is excellent.
~*Witness film is excellent.
Q: : T (I, you, he 7OU ? ) H JG3?7OU 26 QH 3 I N? I T N 2 7OU 7X? 5 (mine, yours, his/hers, ours, 8P theirs) H R 26 T WO28? dKF 7OU WO5 26 QH 3 I 73H Possessive pronouns
Determiners
The white car is mine.
My car is white.
Yours is the blue coat.
Your coat is blue.
Linguistic Grammar Of English
47
Possessive pronouns
Determiners
The car in the garage is his/hers.
His/her car is in the garage.
Dara's house is big, but ours is bigger. Our house is bigger than Dara's. Theirs is the house on the left.
Their house is on the left.
26 2: T QQ7fT P7X PX 8P QQ H7fT P7X PX (definite and indefinite article) H JG3?7OU 26 T N? H J7OU 26 QH 3 I N? # *' , ? >9 9 ? @ ,m = +_ +*?' >2 > #2m 3a 30- 2m pa +",m ?aq = m 4+" A @ '
48
1. These questions are easy.
Determiner Pronoun
2. Is this yours?
Determiner Pronoun
3. Can i borrow some sugar?
Determiner Pronoun
4. This play of yours - what's it about?
Determiner Pronoun
5. These are really tasty.
Determiner Pronoun
= *! = m 4+" 26 T QH 3 I G3? 6 9 ? 26 8P7OU QH 3 I H 26 I 7OU 26 3 NGN 7 J QH T QH 3 I N?7OU 3 3 N I I N G3? 6 9 H 9 ? 26 G O P 27OU 7 M
26 QH 3 I F 5? 9 ? I all met
26 QH 3 I F 26 QH 3 I F ? 8 5? ?
my
friends
many
O P 2 H 5? ? I O 7 H2H N?79R 7T P H 7 XPTQ O P 2 T QH 3 I WH I 6 9 H G O P 27N N F O XPTQ7T 9 KF 9 E 6 9 H 7 H I = m 4+" +_, A 26 QH 3 I F 5? 9 ? XP7OU F Q O 5 F 98 QH 7OU 3 O P7 G9 HS 1. ? _ 9= , `" ("multiplying" expression) O P QN? 26 FXQ [aVQ igWz /N S (times) 73H twice my salary 7 H 5 7 7NE 5 f double my salary 7 H 5 7 7NE 5 f ten times my salary Q7 H 5 7 7NE 5 f
Linguistic Grammar Of English
49
2. ?%:'m, (fractions) 73H half my salary 2 KF 9 KF 5 7 7NE 5 f one-third my salary 9 KF G 5 7 7NE 5 f 3. = all # 3 both 73H all my salary 7 7NE I 9 N5 f both my salaries 7 7NE I X6 5 f = m 4+" +_, A 0*-a 2 93p m? * `" m, ! 4 * +_, 2= #A m @_ 73H *all half my salary 7 I 2 KF 5 7 7NE 5 f = m 4+" +_, 2
26 2: T QQ7fT P7X PX the 8P 26 2: T QQ H7fT P7X PX a/an 7OU 26 QH 3 I F 8 FTQ79R QH S 73H all the book 9 E I 78H half a chapter 2 KF 9 KF 5 Q (7 ) 9 ? OT X H H S F N? 8H ? 8? my J 6 OG3?7OU 26 QH 3 I F 8 N? I 26 N 2 7OU 7X? 5 EF SN? 73H all your money all his/her money all our money all their money
50
'
+_ m 4+"4!*?9 (demonstrative) Â&#x192;?aq = m 4+" +_, 2
p* 73H 7N 73H all these problems twice that size four times this amount = m 4+" +_, p, X6 785 N 8PX6 78586 N Q F 7OU 26 QH 3 I F ? 5? ? 73H the two children 7NR 2 his fourth birthday 7 N2 Q QO[ F F5 75 dKF OJK X6 Q86 N Q F F O N? 73H my next project 2 H O5 f our last meeting O P3: 2 I F 8? 5 T 7 your previous remark G9?5? 2 N79R 2 I H 5 2: her subsequent letter XN9 fQ Q H 5 7 N X6 EF S R7OU 26 QH 3 I F ?5? ? my many friends 7TEF 98 2 5 f our several achievements 98 O P 5 7 The few friends that I have 7TEF 2 Ff WH H X 26 QH 3 I F 5? 9 ? 26 QH 3 I F ?5? ? JG3? H Q26 QH 3 I EF G O P 27N N? 73H my next two projects 2 2 H O5 f several other people 2 EF S 98 2
Linguistic Grammar Of English
51
# *' , ? >9 9 +*?' >2 # 3 3 4 * = m 4+"> a 30- 2m pa +" 1. I'll just have half a cup. 2. She calls her two children twice a week. 3. Your photograph is in all the papers. 4. Both these books were published last year. 5. Other people get double the amount we get. 6. I really need a new computer.
52
+_A = - 26 7OU 26 o P 6 p (action) 9 E o 8 E 6 p (doing) G O P 2 H O I 26 2E rides Prem rides a bicycle. G F I 26 rides 2E P 6 F Paul N 2E 5 F X H R 26 98 26 F H N? N JK P 6 78 73H G O P 2 Prem seems unhappy. 7 H JTWN N? H seems N P 6 7 H JQ N? H Prem N P 6 P 7 EF 75 W? K unhappy. N I 2 N H 26 7OU o P 6 p XK NW79 E H XP 7OU 2 2 N F2H 5? X6 N 7 J7 W?26 X6 N2 5 26 F3 N7X H I N? N 7 W?8 P7fT P5 H
a @" 1 H O I2E H 26 G O P 2 [1] Onumar travels to work by train. 7 7N O 6 N J Â&#x2026; [2] Dang sings in the choir. N ? 7T8 G O P 7 [3] We walked five miles to a garage. 7 7N 7 ? 7OU P P 9? 8 O F ? dH J [4] I cooked a meal for the family. f 6 9 6 9 Q 3 G 2 Q2
Linguistic Grammar Of English
53
7 N? H G O P 2 [1] 8P [2] 26 ts 98 G 5 P F O P 2 [3] 8P [4] 26 ted 98 F F 98 26 798H I 7 H V 26 (inflections) dKF G3?7 G WOTEI 5 26 N H O P 2 F [1] N? 7 -s 26 WOTEI travel 26 8 ? F7OU 8 P7fT P5 26 WOTEI N I = - a @" 1 -ate
concentrate, demonstrate, illustrate
-ify
clarify, dignify, magnify
-ise/-ize
baptize, conceptualize, realise
a *+2 # 3aÂ&#x2020;99 ! 7 EF 7 TWNJK 26 F S O 7 K JK WOTEI 73H 26 travel, sing X I 7 XK 6 V 26 WOTEI 2 ? 73H - a @" 1 + Â&#x2C6;! = (base form) Inflection
54
[1] She travel
+ s
to work by train
[2] Dang sing
+ s
in the choir
[3] We
walk
+ ed
five miles to a garage
[4] I
cook
+ ed
a meal for the whole family
V 26 798H IQH Q 8 (tense) V 26 N? 7 8s QH Q JK OÂ&#x2039;XX:Q 8 (present tense) 8P V 26 N? 7 8ed QH Q JK N 8 (past tense) 8 ? 26 (verb ending) JQH Q Q:228 N?N? 5 G9? K Q JK H F7 8H JK 26 8P 26 T 7 Q 8? H O P QN? Q: : Q: : H8 PQ: : J7OU N? I W O7 TX 8P W O T9WTX N O eG H O I :
? 9
A 9
1st
I
We
2nd
You
You
3rd
He/she/john/the dog
They / the dogs
G O P 2 [1] Omar travels to work by train. O P 2 I T Q: : F9 KF G WO7 TX 2E she 8P WOOÂ&#x2039;XX:Q 88 ? N? 8s H R 9 7 F she N? 26 T W O T9W T X 26 R X P7 N 7O8 F O8 [1] Onumar travels to work by train. 7 7N O 6 N J Â&#x2026; [1a] They travel to work by train. T 75 7N O 6 N J Â&#x2026; 26 travel G O P 2 [1a] 2 7OU WOOÂ&#x2039;X X:Q 8 WH H 7O8 F O8 7T P26 T F WH5? 9 ? 7O8 F O F2E 2 T P9 H 26 T (9 E 26 ) 8P26 I 7 H 2 N28?
Linguistic Grammar Of English
55
(agreement 9 E concord) dEF G3? Q 26 F7 OU W O OÂ&#x2039;X X:Q 87 H I 6 9 Q W O N 8 H 2 H G H W O 5 26 73H she travelled/they travelled. # *' , ? >9 9 +*?' >2 = - > , 2m pa +" Dear Dr. Dhirawit, Greetings from Tokyo. I'm the bureau chief for Newsweek magazine here, and I'm working on an article about Buddhist political movements around Asia. I found your names on the Buddhism protection centre website, where you posted an article explaining the reasons why you believe that Buddhism should be declared the state religion in Thailand. Is there any chance I might be able to interview you on the phone at some point over the next few days? I would be very eager to incorporate your views into our piece. Many thanks in advance. Sincerely, Christian Caryl
56
- +_ = A * ,- to WO5 26 F 6 9 ? N? to 73H To ask to believe to cry to go
To protect to sing to talk to wish
WO QQ I H 2 H X WO26 TEI FX 8? 98 2 8H JK WO QQ I7 EF ? PQ:26 73H 8H H "this is the verb to be". ? H 2 X 8? to H N?7OU H 9 KF 5 26 78 Infinitives with to 9 2 N 7fT PJK to-infinitives 7TEF G9? J X6 X bare infinitives dKF H to 6 9 ? 73H Infinitives + to = A
Infinitives I`_ p m + to = A
Help me to open the gate
Help me open the gate
= - a @_ X JK Q N I 7 N? W?X 26 3 WO 8? 2E WOOÂ&#x2039;XX:Q 8 WO N 8 8P W O TEI (infinitive) X I 26 W O dKF 7 XP K H O I [1] The old man is writing a play. 3 3 6 8 75 Q 8P2 [2] The film was produced in Hollywood. T 7 EF I ? 5KI G Â&#x2018; 88 WN
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26 writing G O P 2 [1] 7OU F W?X WO ting 9 E WO ing participle form G O P 2 [2] 26 WO produced 7 H 26 WO8ed 9 E -ed participle form. H WHQH 2 I F -ed participle forms H N?8 ? N? -ed H H GN 73H The film was written by John Brown. T 7 EF I H N X 9 Q
The film was bought by an American company. T 7 EF IJW dEI O N Q 3 7 9H 9 KF The film was made in Hollywood. T 7 EF I ? G Â&#x2018; 88 WN 26 I 9 N I 7 H -ed participle forms N H26 K JK 8 ? F98 98 H O 26 H -ed participle form 2 Q28: JK 26 WO798H IN? 5? 2 P 2E H Q G G3? -ed participle form Q V 9 E -ed inflection dKF 26 98 IG3?G QH Q 8 9 E tense 5 26 JK I 7 N? W? X W O 5 26 9? W O 8? N : O XK N? Q 75? N? 8P7O Q7 Q2 H 7TEF 2 PN 8P75? GX H 7 XPG3? 7 T T Q: : F W O 7 TX (G W O F N28? Q he/she/it) Q26 H8P26 7 H I G9? 7 H 26 Q 26 7OU WO O 9 E (irregular past form) 8P WO -ed.
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Base/infinitive form WON I 7N
Present tense form WOOÂ&#x2039;XX:Q 8
Past tense -ing form form WO -ing WO N 8
Cook
He cooks
He cooked
He is cooking
He has cooked
Walk
He walks
He walked
He is walking
He has walked
Take
He takes
He took
He is taking
He has taken
Bring
He brings
He brought
He is bringing
He has brought
Be
He is
He was
He is being
He has been
-ed form WO -ed
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# *' , ? >9 9
3 a = - +_ +*?' >2 p, > #2m 3a 30- ,m ?aq = - a>* 1. He plays the piano in a jazz club.
present past infinitive -ed -ing
2. David is singing in the shower again.
present past infinitive -ed -ing
3. He was told not to laugh at policemen.
present past infinitive -ed -ing
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4. His arm swelled up after the accident.
present past infinitive -ed -ing
5. The world population has increased by 6% since 1970
present past infinitive -ed -ing
- A ! # 3 -
26 F WO N 8 9 E OÂ&#x2039;XX:Q 8 I 7 H 98 9 E finite verbs H 26 G WO EF (infinitive, -ing, or -ed) 7 H 9 E nonfinite verbs 9 2 H 26 F 3 7OU finite verbs 8P 26 Fp m 3 7OU nonfinite verbs 2 H P9 H 26 I 3 N I 2 6 2 G H5 98 7 EF X 6 G9? Q9 ? F 5 26 I SG O P 2 O P 2G H O I7OU H 26 H8P 3 N
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62
3 p m 3
O P 2
Victor plays the piano.
Present
My daughter spoke Chinese on holiday.
Past
It took courage to continue after the accident.
H
p m 3
Leaving home can be very traumatic.
H
p m 3
Leave immediately when you are asked to do so. H
p m 3
3
3
# *' , ? >9 0a * 3 ,m = - +_ +*?' >2 > #2m 3a 30- ?aq finite A @ nonfinite 1. Prem runs to work every day
finite nonfinite
2. They have run away together
finite nonfinite
3. Tong gave Prem a menacing look
finite nonfinite
4. Fairy was watching TV when the phone rang
finite
5. We found him smoking behind the shed
finite
nonfinite
nonfinite
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- 4m,G H WO 8ing 8P -ed dKF 7 N? K 8? 2 XP 7 N? H H8PO P 2 26 73H [1] The old lady is writing a play. [2] The film was produced in Hollywood. I writing 8P produced H 26 26 9 KF 6 9 ? 26 F 6 9 ? 798H I (is 8P was) 7 H 3H 9 E auxiliary verbs FX 8? 26 : F7 N? K G 9 ? H S I 7OU 26 98 (main verbs) 3H 9 E auxiliary verb Q 2 I 7 H helping verb I I 7 EF X H 26 N 8H 6 9 ? F3H 26 98 F WH 73H G O P 2the old lady is writing a play. 3H is 6 9 ? F3H 26 98 2E writing N 7fT P7X PX G9? Q H P 6 I 6 8 7 N5KI 4 * - 4m,G H I XP 8H JK 3 N5 3H G 5 3 N T 75ON I Passive be
G3?3H G ? O P 2 passive 73H The film was produced in Hollywood . dKF WO FO Q7O8 F 7OU OÂ&#x2039;XX:Q 8N? 73H The film is produced in Hollywood . 7 XP 8 Q 8H JK WO passives 2 I G 98 7 EF 7 K 7 F Q7 EF voice
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Progressive be
6 9 ? F 3EF 8H 2E 7OU F3H N H P 6 I S 6 8 7 N5KI 73H The old lady is writing a play. 3H I WO N 8N? 73H The old lady was writing a play.
Perfective have
7OU 3H F N G9? Q H P 6 N? 7 RX I 8 8? H N 8 H 2 7 F 5? EQ7 EF X JK OÂ&#x2039;XX:Q 73H She has broken her leg. (7O Q7 Q QO P 2: She broke her leg) 7 EF G3? H Q progressive auxiliary 8? perfective auxiliary XP7O8 F 8 P O dKF 7 XP N? K H O
Modal can/could may/might shall/should will/would must
Modals N : 2 J 5? VW T 7 EF 5 9 E 6 73H
Dummy do
3H O P7 I 7T 26 3H do 7N 7 H I 6 9 Q ?G3?G ? O P 2
You can have a sweet if you like. He may arrive early. Paul will be a footballer some day. I really should leave now.
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26 J 73H Do you like cheese? G3?G ? O P 2Oe 7 73H I do not like cheese. 8PG3?G ? O P 226 F 73H Do not eat the cheese. 8P ? F :N dummy do G3?G 7 ? O P 2 73H I do like cheese.
2 H F 6 2 P9 H 3H Q 98 2E 26 3H XP HO e WH7 N F SG O P 2 73H 7 H J N 26 98 I X O P 2 8P 2 7fT P26 3H ? N? 73H I would like a new job.
~*I would a new job.
You should buy a new car. ~*You should a new car. She must be crazy.
~*She must crazy.
26 3H O e WH 2WH Q 26 98 G 5? 26 98 J WH7N F SG O P 2 N? N H ? 26 3H 73H
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I like my new job. I bought a new car. She sings like a bird. XXP Q O P 2 FG O P 2 7T 3H 7 H I N 7fT PG Q26 J 73H Q. Can you sing? A. Yes, I can G O P 2N 8H 26 3H can H N?O e WH N H 2 6 98 7 7N 7T P26 98 -- sing t I O e WHG 26 J N I 6 G9?7OU F75? N? H 26 Q 2E Yes, I can sing 8 P I7 H 8P26 9 E ellipsis 8H 2E 8P7 ? 26 98 ?G O P 226 Q 26 3H G3?G WO H G9? I N 7fT PG G3? QQ H7OU 73H 26 3H have G3? H 8 7OU 've 73H I have won the lottery. ~I've won the lottery. H 26 73H I 7 H enclitic forms Q 2 I 26 3H 98 26 WO H 79 E N I XK ? PG9? 7 EF ? 6 26 798H I G3? 73H I'd like a new job. ( = modal auxiliary would) We'd already spent the money by then. ( = perfective auxiliary had) He's been in there for ages. ( = perfective auxiliary has) She's eating her lunch. ( = progressive auxiliary is) QQ N Q2 75? GX H O IXP7 ? F26 3H 3 3 N F 6 2 2E be, have, 8P do.
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# *' , ? >9 9
3 ,m = - +_ +*?' >2 ?aq = - A ! A @ - 4m,-i 1. I will have the soup.
main auxiliary
2. Police are investigating the incident.
main auxiliary
3. It is very peaceful here.
main auxiliary
4. Where does your brother work?
main auxiliary
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5. They have decided to advertise your job.
main
6. He does his homework on the way to school.
main
auxiliary
auxiliary
' !2 - 4m,2: Q 5 3H XP3H G9?7 JX6 26 3H X 26 98 N 73H Negation 3H FG3? not 9 E nÂ&#x161;t G ? O P 2Oe 7 73H cannot, don't, wouldn't Inversion 3H Q7O8 F Q26 F 6 9 ? 7 7TEF XP ? O P 226 J 73H [I will] see you soon ~[will I] see you soon? Code
3H F XJW 6 G3? H oX6 p (stranded)G O P 2 F 7 ? 9 E 8P 98 ? 73H John never sings, but Mary does.
Emphasis 3H F JG3?G 7 ? 2 9 5 O P 2 73H I do like cheese. 26 98 H J N 2: Q 7 98H I N? 73H 7 EF 7 ? O P 226 J N G3?26 98 7 H J Q7O8 F N? N I [John sings] in the choir ~*[sings John] in the choir? FXP ? O P 273H I 7 JG3? 3H do N? N I [John sings] in the choir ~[Does John sing] in the choir? = `_ - 4m,G Q N 26 3H I 98 7 JX6 26 F O P QN? 26 98 26 dKF 7 H 26 KF 3H (semi-auxiliary) 26 798H I 7 NX 26 9 E 26 dKF JK 26 N H O I
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get to happen to have to mean to
seem to tend to turn out to used to
be about to be going to be likely to be supposed to
73H 7N Q26 3H EF S 26 KF 3H G3? ?9 ? 26 98 73H The film is about to start. T XP7 F f 8? I'm going to interview the Lord Mayor of Korat. f 6 8 XP7 F H 7 7 E 2 3 I have to leave early today. If ? 7N 7 R 5KI You are supposed to sign both forms. 2 N H 2: XP ? 8 G QQÂ&#x2026; I I used to live in that house. f 72 WHG Q? 98 I 26 8 P I X7 N5KI N?G Q Q (context) EF S H7OU F HG3H7OU 26 KF 3H 73H I'm going to New Delhi.
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G F I 26 (combination) HG3H26 KF 3H 7T P H H N? O e WHN? Q26 98 G O P 2N 8H going 7OU 26 98 O N 7 H going JJW FN? 26 EF 73H travel N? (I|m traveling to New Delhi) 26 |m 7OU WO H 5 am dKF 7OU 3H FQH Q H 79 : 6 8 N6 7 WH (progressive auxiliary) 8P to dKF 7 XP N? K H O 7OU 26 Q: TQ (preposition) # 3 ! : 3 8 (tense) 9 JK J F F7 N79 : 9 E 7 N P 6 F GN F 9 KF G P P7 8 9 KF H H XP7OU G OÂ&#x2039;XX:Q 9 E G N dKF Q N?X 7O8 F WO5 26 73H David walks to school. (OÂ&#x2039;XX:Q 8) 7N N7N O 7 David walked to school. ( N 8) 7N N7N O 7 7 EF 8H JK G 7 8 EF S 73H 2 8 J ? O P 2 N?98 QQ N G3? modal auxiliary 2E will 9 E 26 KF 3H 2E be going to 73H David will walk to school tomorrow. 7N NXP7N O 7 G T :H I David is going to walk to school tomorrow. 7N NXP7N O 7 G T :H I 7 EF X QH Q 7 8 G 2 H 6 G9?26 ? 7O8 F WO 7 XK XP H 8H JK WO 2 8 (future tense) 2 X G 7T WO 87 H I 2E OÂ&#x2039;XX:Q 8 8P N 8
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8 P5 89 E 7 P (aspect) 9 JK 79 : 9 E P 6 I S JW H I I N T Q7 8 H J FG 7 8 F7 N79 : H 5? 8H IXP3H G9?75? GX N? 5KI [1] David fell in love on his eighteenth birthday. 7N N 98: G 7 N2 Q QO[ F Q ON5 75 ( N ) [2] David has fallen in love. 7N N 98: ( I H N X JK OÂ&#x2039;XX:Q ) [3] David is falling in love. 7N N 6 8 98: (G 5 P I 79 : 6 8 N6 7 W)H G O P 2 [1] 26 fell N?QH Q H 7N N 2 7 EF 2 I G N 8P7fT P7X PX H 7 EF 7 N2 Q QO[ F Q ON5 75 26 26 I 7OU simple past tense G O P 2 [2] 73H 7N 79 : 7 N5KI G N H Q 7OU H N?7 N5KI 7 EF H I F O H I Q H 79 : N6 7 H 7 EF X JK 7 8 G 5 P F 6 8 TWNJK WH -- David has fallen in love. 6 G9? 7 Q H 7N N N P 6 F H (7 EF 7O Q7 Q QO P 2 [1]) N I XK 2 Q H 7 H J 8H H *David has fallen in love on his eighteenth birthday. 3H has I7OU F W?X G perfective aspect (8 P QW ) 8P 3H 7OU F W?X G perfective auxiliary ( 3H QW ) G O P 2 [3] 79 : o 98: p 6 8 N6 7 O WH 8H 2E 7N N 2 WHG 5 P F 8H JK N? 79 : I 7 XK 7 H progressive aspect 8P7 3H QQ I H progressive auxiliary.
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! : 3 JK 8 (tense) N? G O P 2[2] 8P [3] 5? ? WH G WOOÂ&#x2039;XX:Q 8 H R J7O8 F G9? WHG WO N 8 N? 73H David had fallen in love -- perfective aspect, past tense David was falling in love -- progressive aspect, past tense - 4m,-' (perfective auxiliary) 98 N? 26 98 G WO 8ed G 5 P F - 4m,- !** (progressive auxiliary) 98 N? 26 98 G WO ting dKF XP N? Q 7T F 7 N G3? H G H O I Perfective aspect Progressive aspect 8 P QW 9 E 8 P 6 8 7OU O WH QW 7 P 9 E Q NN87 P Present tense Has fallen OÂ&#x2039;XX:Q 8
Is falling
Past tense N 8
Was falling
Had fallen
G 5 P F aspect JK 8 (tense) N? H7 JG3? tense N? N H ? aspect R N? 73H Dara falls in love. 9 E Dara fell in love.
# *' , ? >9 > #2m 3a 30- 2m pa +" #'* aspect p, 9 ? @ ,m > #2m 3 ?aq perfective aspect A @ progressive aspect
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1. Samak has bought a new house.
perfective progressive
2. I think we have seen this film already.
perfective
3. The whole class is going to the theatre tonight.
perfective
4. Itthi's left his coat in the car.
perfective
progressive
progressive
progressive 5. Suksan's leaving today.
perfective progressive
2!, -m
Simple present aÂ&#x2020;99 !
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Simple past *+2
Simple future 2
I study English everyday. f 7 :
Two years ago, I studied English in America. 7 EF O[ H f 7 FO P7
If you are having problems, I will help you study English. 9 2: OÂ&#x2039; 9 f XP 3H 2: G 7 I am going to study English next year. f XP7 F 7 G O[9 ?
Present continuous
Past continuous
Future continuous
aÂ&#x2020;99 ! = ! ?aq pa - m
*+2 = ! ?aq pa - m
2 = ! ?aq pa - m
I am studying English now. 5 P I f 6 8 7
I was studying English when you called yesterday. f 6 8 7 G 5 P F 2: T 9 f 7 EF I
I will be studying English when you arrive tonight. f XP7 WH F2: JK G 2E I I am going to be studying English when you arrive tonight.
Past perfect *+2 '
Future perfect 2 '
Present perfect aÂ&#x2020;99 ! '
I have studied English I had studied a little
f 2 6 8 7 F2: JK G 2E I
I will have studied
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in several different countries. f 72 7 X ( J Q )G 98 O P7
English before I moved to the U.S. f N?7 Q? H ? O 9 7
every tense by the time I finish this course. f XP N?7 W? : tense 7 EF 7 6 7 RX98 W I I am going to have studied every tense by the time I finish this course. f 6 8 XP7 W? : tense7 EF f 7 6 7 RX 98 W I
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Present perfect continuous
Past perfect continuous
Future perfect continuous
I have been studying English for five years. f 7 7OU 7 8 9? O[ 8?
I had been studying English for five years before I moved to the U.S. f 7 7OU 7 8 9? O[ H ? O 9 7
I will have been studying English for over two hours by the time you arrive. f XP N?7 7OU 7 8 H 3 F 7 EF 2: JK I am going to have been studying English for over two hours by the time you arrive.
f 2 XP N?7 7OU 7 8 H 3 F 7 EF 2: JK G WH 9 E voice WH 3 N2E active voice (O P 2 FO P 7OU VW? P 6 N ) 8P passive voice (O P 2 F O P 7OU VW?JW P 6 ) Active voice Passive voice [1] Prem congratulated Dhirawit 7O N 2 N Q
[2] Dhirawit was congratulated by Prem N? Q N 2 N X 7O
? O P 2 passive 6 N? N G3? passive auxiliary 2E be 8PV 26 98 G9? 7 OU W O 8ed G ? O P 2 active H ? G3? passive auxiliary ? H XP 26 3H (auxiliaries) EF S WH R Prem is congratulating Dhirawit. 7O 6 8 N 2 N Q
Prem will congratulate Dhirawit. 7O XP N 2 N Q
Prem has congratulated Dhirawit. 7O N? N 2 N Q 7 ( I H N JK OÂ&#x2039;XX:Q )
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O P 2 H 5? ? I7OU ? O P 2 QQ active (O P 5 O P 27OU VW? P 6 ) 7T P H passive auxiliary G O P 278 5 G9? 7 FO P 2 2E Prem is congratulating Dhirawit. 26 3H 2E progressive auxiliary HG3H passive auxiliary 7 W? H 26 98 2E congratulate V WO7OU 8ing HG3H -ed G ? O P 2 passive G O P 2 [2] 7 8H JK Prem G P 7OU (agent) 9 JK VW? F P 6 N 2 N H 7N N H G Q 2 I R H PQ:JK agent 73H Dhirawit was congratulated. G 73H I7 7 H agentless passive 9 E O P 2 X F H PQ:VW? P 6 0 00 0 0 0 0
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# *' , ? >9 9
3 ,m a 30- 2m pa +"?aq ' a 30- # active A @ passive 1. Jom decided to cancel the party
active passive
2. The lecturer was impressed by your essay
active
3. Your buffalo is walking on our lawn
active
passive
passive 4. The top floor was destroyed
active passive
5. The pills should be taken twice a day
active passive
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+_A = %! 26 2: T (adjectives) JX6 N? N G3?7 M 98 3 N H R X 8H N? H 26 2: T G 3?G Q 5 26 G9? N? 2 3 N7X F 5KI 73H cute girls cold weather large windows violent storms
? H 9 9 ? H ? T : F :
26 2: T Q 26 7 J Q N?X 8 ? 26 8 ? 26 F 7OU 7fT P798H IO P QN? -able/-ible achievable, capable, illegible, remarkable -al
biographical, functional, internal, logical
-ful
beautiful, careful, grateful, harmful
-ic
cubic, manic, rustic, terrific
-ive
attractive, dismissive, inventive, persuasive
-less
breathless, careless, groundless, restless
-ous
courageous, dangerous, disastrous, fabulous
H R 26 2: T X6 F H JX6 N?N? 7 F26 8 ? 7 EF X 7OU 8:H F H WO7fT P 73H
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bad bright clever cold common complete dark deep difficult
distant elementary good great honest hot main morose old
quiet real red silent simple strange wicked wide young
X 26 2: T F N ? G XP79R H 2 98 98 H R 2: 8 P 98 O P F3H G9?7 J P N? ! : 3 = %! 26 2: T J 26 5 N? (modifying word) 73H very, extremely, 9 E less WH5? 9 ? 73H very cute girls ? H very cold weather 9 extremely large windows 9 ? H F ? 798E 7 less violent storms T : F : ? 8
G F I 26 5 (modifying word) X N 26 2: T ?7OU 3 I G 7O Q7 Q G PN Q W H 9 E F6 H PN Q F26 2: T QH Q 7 2: 8 P QQ I 7OU F W?X G gradability 2E 26 2: T H G9 H J 6 X N PN Q N? 7 ? H H 26 2: T I QH Q N? 7 H WHG PN Q W :N 8? XK Q7OU 8:H F H JX N 8:H N? 73H
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my main reason for coming ~*my very main reason for coming 79 :V8 6 2 G F F5 f 79 :V8 6 2 G F F5 f the principal role in the play Q Q F 6 2 F :NG N
~*the very principal role in the play Q Q F 6 2 F :N H F G N
X G3?26 5 73H 26 very 8P extremely N? 8? 26 2: T J7O8 F WO7TEF QH Q PN Q5 26 7TEF N 7O Q7 Q N? 73H big bigger
biggest
5 I F6 F :NG PN Q5 7O Q7 Q 7OU F W?X G absolute form (5 I ) 5 I 8 7 H comparative form (5 I 7O Q7 Q) 8P5 I W :N 7 H superlative form (5 I W :N) N O eG H H O I Absolute Comparative Superlative 5 I 5 I 7O Q7 Q 5 I W :N Dark
Darker
Darkest
New
Newer
Newest
Old
Older
Oldest
Young
Younger
Youngest
N H G9 H 7O Q7 Q5 I comparative 6 N? N 7 8 er 8P5 I superlative 6 N? N 7 -est F absolute form H R 26 2: T 98 26 F H7OU O 8 PN 8H 73H
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Absolute Comparative Superlative 5 I 5 I 7O Q7 Q 5 I W :N Good
Better
Best
Bad
Worse
Worst
Far
Farther
Farthest
26 2: T Q 26 ? 7O Q7 Q5 I comparative superlative N G3?26 more 8P most 86 N Q
8P
Absolute Comparative Superlative 5 I 5 I 7O Q7 Q 5 I W :N Important More important Most important Miserable More miserable Most miserable Recent
More recent
Most recent
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# *' , ? >9 = +_ +*?' >2 > a 30- 2m pa +"?aq = %! 9 ? @ ! : 3?Â&#x152; 3 = %! (a-c) +_#2m 3 = m 1. His new car was stolen. a. It has a typical adjective shape. b. It is gradable. c. It can undergo comparison. 2. Something smells good. a. It has a typical adjective shape. b. It is gradable. c. It can undergo comparison. 3. Their restaurant is very successful. a. It has a typical adjective shape. b. It is gradable. c. It can undergo comparison. 4. What an unbelievable story! a. It has a typical adjective shape. b. It is gradable. c. It can undergo comparison.
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5. Her uncle is an atomic scientist. a. It has a typical adjective shape. b. It is gradable. c. It can undergo comparison. = %! +_>4 , p, A # 3A ! = 26 2: T H G9 H JG3? ? I 5? 9 ? 8P5? 98 26 (attributive and predicative adjectives) 73H the blue sea ~ the sea is blue the old man
~ the man is old
happy children
~ the children are happy
26 2: T G 6 9 H 8H 2E WH9 ? 26 7 H attributive adjectives H 26 F WH 6 9 H F 8H 2E WH 9 8 26 7 H predicative adjectives G9? 7 H predicative adjectives XP H WH N Q 26 H WH 98 26 Q 2 I 26 2: T JG3? H X 26 N? N 7fT PG 26 TWN J O (institutionalized expressions) Q 26 73H the governor general secretary general the princess royal times immemorial
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7 7 26 2: T T I H postpositive adjectives ?5? 98 26 T (postposition) JE 7OU F X6 7OU 7 EF 26 2: T 6 9 ? F5 26 T 73H something useful everyone present those responsible 7 79R 2: T F 98 (postpositive adjectives) G3?2WH Q superlative, attributive adjectives 73H the shortest route possible the worst conditions imaginable the best hotel available 26 2: T H G9 H J ? F 6 9 H I 9 ? (attributive) 8P98 (predicative) H R 26 2: T X6 H X6 9 KF F X6 N H ? ? F 6 9 H 7N 7 H I 73H 26 main (the main reason) JG3? F 6 9 H 9 ? 26 7 H I (9 ?98 26 O P 2 RXP7OU *the reason is main) G 5? 26 2: T afraid (the child was afraid) JG3? ? F98 26 7 H I 9 ?98 26 O P 2 RXP7OU *an afraid child) dKF JE H V N98
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# *' , ? >9 9 = A *,m = %! +_ +*?' >2 p, , , p, +_2= #A m >* 1. The green door opened slowly.
attributive predicative postpositive
2. This stretch of water is dangerous.
attributive predicative postpositive
3. The share-holders present voted against the chairman.
attributive predicative postpositive
4. Jan feels ill.
attributive predicative postpositive
5. A larger than normal pay increase was awarded to the nurses.
attributive predicative postpositive
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I7 N? Q7 M 98 SG X N 8:H 26 2: T 8? 8H 2E X N PN Q3 I WO QQ 7O Q7 Q5 I H (comparative) 8P5 I W :N (superlative) 8P8 P G3? 26 2: T H G9 H7OU O 7 M N 8H dKF 7 H 26 2: T 8 (central adjectives) 6 9 Q 8:H F H7OU O 7 M I 7 H 26 2: T Q (peripheral adjectives) 2 I 7 XP 6 2 W?X Q3 N5 26 2: T G 8P7 N = %! +_ + , A -> 2!, ! = %! +_p m + , A -> 2!, 26 2: T F 2 9 G Q26 2: T F H 2 9 G (inherent and non-inherent adjectives) 26 2: T F 9 ? 26 (attributive adjectives) H G9 HQ JK 8 P5 26 F 5 73H G 8 a red car R7OU Q 8 P H a car which is red ( J 2 N ) FX 8? 86 N Q5 26 2: T - 26 (adjective-noun sequences) 73H I J 6 9 NG9 H H 2 H SG 28? N? 73H an old man
~a man who is old
difficult questions ~questions which are difficult round glasses
~glasses which are round
dKF JG3? N? Q26 2: T F ?98 26 73H 73H something understood ~something which is understood the people responsible ~the people who are responsible G3? 26 2: T G H 8 P 7OU N G9? 7 9R 8 P9 E 2: T5 26 F N ? G O Q7O8 F (reformulation) 8?
88
26 2: T 3 N I7 H inherent adjectives N? 79 :V8 F H XP 2 WO 7N 5 26 F 5 H R H G 3H H 26 2: T : XP73EF 9 E T Q 26 G QQ7N 73H 26 2: T small G 8 a small businessman H N?QH Q Q 26 businessman H JO Q7O8 F 9 E 6 9 N G9 HG9?7OU a businessman who is small (UWf}Xgf] gRZgS Nktf) N? HG O P 2 8 Q9 2 JK a businessman whose business is small (UWf }X g f] cd c }X g f] OU [QS P ) 6 9 Q 26 2: T 3 N I 7 H non-inherent adjectives dKF 6 9 ? F5 26 N ? H F inherent adjectives 6 N XP79R 2 H 5 inherent and non-inherent G H 5? 8H I Inherent Non-inherent = %! +_ + , A -> 2!, = %! +_p m + , A -> 2!, distant hills 7 75 F WH 8 O
distant relatives
9H S
a complete chapter Q 7 F QW
a complete idiot H N I 73
a heavy burden P F :H H 9
a heavy smoker VW? WQQ:9 FX N
a social survey 6 X73 2
a social animal 2
an old man 2 3
an old friend 7TEF 7 H
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= %! m '. # 3 ,!2 26 2: T QH T 8P 26 2: T T8 (stative and dynamic adjectives) 2 9 5 3EF stative adjectives QH Q J P9 E T dKF X7OU J P9 E T F2 F 73H big, red, small I I stative adjectives HG3?G ? O P 226 F 73H *be big/red/small X I HG3?G O P 2 F P 6 H 7 EF (progressive constructions) 73H *he is being big/red/small G 5? 26 2: T T8 QH Q J P9 E T H ? R7 F Q 5 9 E 5 Q75 G ? 2 Q2: 5 VW? F7OU 7X? 5 73H brave 7OU QH Q 8 P F H J 79R N? ( H79 E 26 2: T Q 26 73H red) H J 6 G3? N?7 EF ? N? 79 : I XK 6 G3?G O P 2 26 F N? 73H Be brave! = %! ,!2 EF S 73H calm careful cruel disruptive foolish friendly good
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mannerly patient rude shy suspicious tidy vacuous
impatient
vain
26 2: T T 8 : 26 J 6 G3? G O P 226 F N? (be careful!, don't be cruel!) 8P J 6 G3? 98 26 G O P 226 F N? 73H Your son is being disruptive in class. 8W 2: 6 8 5 NX 9 P2 EF G 3 I 7 My parents are being foolish again. TH H5 f 6 7OÂ&#x201E;Â? 8? We're being very patient with you. 7 6 8 G3?2 N H F Q2: %! +_ = A +_ %! +_ = A +_ (nominal adjectives) 7OU 26 2: T F G3?G Q 8 P 73H the poor QH Q JK 8:H 2 F J T 7 F G 8?72 26 2: T EF SG 8:H I 73H the old the sick the wealthy the blind the innocent %! H F 6 2 5 %! +_ = A +_ 7OU 26 F 8H JK 3 H S 73H the Thai the Japanese the Chinese
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the French the British H R N?9 2 H : 3 XP %! +_ = A +_ F N28? 7 98 3 FQH Q JK 2 7OU T9WTX 8P 26 QQ7fT P7X PX (proper nouns) 73H the Germans the Russians the Americans the Poles %! +_ = A +_ H N?9 JK H7T 3 N5 2 7 H I Q 26 H N?QH Q 3 N78 N? dI6 73H the opposite the contrary the good 7O Q7 QG WO comparative 8P superlative R JX N7OU %! +_ = A +_ N? 73H the best is yet to come. the elder of the two the greatest of these the most important among them 26 O P7 F 8H 8? X N7OU %! +_ = A +_ 7 EF X 26 798H I 2: Q 5 26 H I 2: Q 5 26 2: T H N 2: Q N I
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â&#x20AC;˘ 26 QH 3 I (determiner) 6 9 ? dKF 7OU definite article othep â&#x20AC;˘ J 26 2: T 7TEF 5 2 N? 73H the gallant French unfortunate poor X I 26 798H I 8 P73 26 2: T N I â&#x20AC;˘ JX N PN Q N? 73H the very old the extremely wealthy â&#x20AC;˘ 98 26 FG3? 7O Q7 Q WO comparative 8P superlative 73H the poorer the poorest = %! # 3 = 7 N? Q 8? H = %! = A = (attributive adjectives) G3? ? 6 9 ? 26 F 5 73H 26 red G red car dKF 7 ? G9? 3 N 7X X 26 F ? G 6 9 H 7N 8PO P QN? 9 ? F 2 ? O P 23 N7N 8 T X NW26 5? 8H I rally car saloon car family car 26 5? ? 26 6 9 ? F5 26 F 7OU Q G9?7 Q 7 F Q 8P7 N5 J 5KI 73H a rally car 9 JK J FG3?5 Q G 5H 5 88 F 26 5 798H I7 N5KI G 6 9 H 7N Q26 red G H 5? Q H HG3H7OU 26 2: T dKF 7 J N N? N G3?7 M
G QH 3 N5 26 2: T 8H 2E
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O P HG3? very 73H *a very rally car *a very saloon car *a very family car O P F H WO comparative9 E superlative 73H *rallier *ralliest / *more rally / *most rally *salooner *saloonest / *more saloon / *most saloon *familier *familiest / *more family / *most family 8PO P :N ? H JG3? ?G 6 9 H 98 26 *the car is rally *the car is saloon *the car is family N I ? H 26 798H IXP J ?G 6 9 H 5 26 2: T N? H JE H HG3H26 2: T JE H 7OU 26 H R 26 2: T F X 26 7 H denominal adjectives N H a mathematical puzzle [`a puzzle based on mathematics'] OÂ&#x2039; 9 73 2
a biological experiment [`an experiment in biology'] N8 N? 3 a wooden boat [`a boat made of wood'] 7 E F ? X ?
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26 2: T F X 26 JK 26 2: T F7 F 5? Q 3 N? 73H a Russian lady [`a lady who comes from Russia'] : T F X O P7 7d German goods [`goods produced in Germany'] 2? FV8 G O P7 7 26 2: T O P7 I ? PG9? N X 2: T F 6 9 ? F 7 OU 26 N (nominal adjectives) FQH Q 3 8 7O Q7 Q 2: T F 6 9 ? F7OU 26 N (nominal adjective): the French are noted for their wines. Q26 2: T F X 26 (denominal adjective): the French people are noted for their wines. # *' , ? >9 9 ? @ ,m = +_ +*?' >2 > #2m 3a 30- ?aq = %! A @ = 1. Life insurance is not cheap.
adjective noun
2. The Prime Minister is a close friend of mine.
adjective
3. The Chinese embassy is just down the road.
adjective
noun
noun
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4. Friday is a busy day for me.
adjective noun
5. Our patient records are confidential.
adjective noun
= - +_>4 ?aq = %! 26 FG3?7OU 26 2: T (participial adjectives) 7 N? Q H 8? H 26 2: T 98 26 FQH Q 2 7OU 26 2: T N?N? 7 F 8 ? 5 26 3 N H F 6 2 3 N9 KF 5 26 2: T F J 7 N?X 8 ? F7 XP7 W? H O I 2E 26 F8 ? N? 8ed 9 E 8ing 73H -ed form
computerized, determined, excited, misunderstood, renowned, self-centred, talented, unknown
-ing form
annoying, exasperating, frightening, gratifying, misleading, thrilling, time-consuming, worrying
O NX6 ? H 26 WO -ed 73H 26 H misunderstood 8P unknown H N? 8 ? N? -ed H H GN 26 2: T F8 ? N? 8ed 9 E 8ing I 7OU F W?X G participial adjectives 7 EF X 26 798H I 8 ? 26 F79 E Q verb participles 73H He was training for the Olympics. 9 E He had trained for the Olympics. G Q 26 2 T 9 E V 26 2: T
798H IN? 73H to annoy, to computerize, to excite 7OU ? G 5 P FQ 26 H T 9 E V 73H *to renown, *to self-centre, *to talent 8P 73H 7N Q26 2: T EF S participial adjectives JG3?26 5 73H
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very, extremely, or less (very determined, extremely self-centred, less frightening) 7OU ? X I JG3?26 more 8P most G ? O P 2 7O Q7 Q5 I H 8P5 I W :N N?N? 73H annoying, more annoying, most annoying 7OU ? 8P participial adjectives JG3? ? I 5? 9 ? (attributive) 8P 98 (predicative) 73H
A
A ! -
That's an irritating noise. That noise is irritating. This is an exciting film.
This film is exciting.
He's a talented footballer. That footballer is talented. = - +_>4 ?aq = %! 98 26 F HV 26 H ? 5KI X 6 participle O P Q Q26 73H alcohol-based chemicals battle-hardened soldiers drug-induced coma energy-saving devices fact-finding mission purpose-built accommodation 26 798H I R73H JG3? 98 26 N? 73H the chemicals are alcohol-based. The soldiers were battle-hardened. 7OU ?
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7 EF G3? participial adjectives ?5? 98 26 Q 2 I 6 G9? F XP Q N? H 26 S I G3?7OU 2: T (adjectival) 9 E (verbal) 73H [1] The workers are striking. G F 26 Q 26 G O P 29 O J P 5 26 striking XK H 2 3 N7X 5 2 H O IXP3H G9?75? GX 6 adjectival [1a] 8P verbal [1b] G H O P 2 [1] G3? [1a] The workers are very striking in their new uniforms. (=`impressive', `conspicuous') T 2 6 8 EF 7 ? Q3:N72 EF QQG9 H (= G H2 O P QGX H 79R N?3 N) [1b] The workers are striking outside the factory gates. (=`on strike') T 2 6 8 O P ? WH F9 ? O P W (= WH P9 H 6 O P ? ) 8 T X O P 2 I H O I [2] The noise is annoying. 7 N H 6 2
[3] The noise is annoying the neighbors. 7 N 6 G9? H 6 2 6 9 Q7TEF Q? G O P 2 [2] 7 J5 26 annoying N? G3? 26 very 73H [2a] The noise is (very) annoying. 7 N H 6 2 H7 H JG3?5 G 8 P7N QO P 2 [3] [3a] *the noise is (very) annoying the neighbors.
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*7 N 6 G9? H 6 2 6 9 Q7TEF Q? Q O P 2 [2a] QH Q H annoying 7OU 26 2: T G 2 ? O P 2 I G O P 2 [3] HG 26 annoying 7 H J7 26 very N?79 E G O P 2 [3a] X I 7 J Q N? X F 26 neighbors ( ) G O P 2 ?5? 98 annoying 5? 7 N? H 7 J7O8 F O P 2 [3] G9?7OU O P 2 passive (O P 2 FO P 5 O P 27OU VW?JW P 6 ) N? N 7O8 F 7OU the neighbors were annoyed by the noise. G 73H I annoying 7OU 26 98 5 O P 2 N 26 progressive auxiliary 2E is 6 9 ? G O P 2 [2] 26 7T 26 7N dKF 7OU 26 98 2E is 7 JX6 O P 2 H8P2WH5? 8H IN? G3?7 M 7N %!
-
This film is terrifying. T 7 EF I H PT K 8
This film is terrifying the children. T 7 EF I 6 G9?7NR S PT K 8
Your comments are alarming the Your comments are alarming. people. 2 2 N79R 5 2: H GX 2 2 N79R 5 2: 6 G9?VW?2 I 98 GX 8 The defendant's answers were misleading. 26 Q5 X6 78 H 6 O WH 75? GXV N
The defendant's answers were misleading the jury. 26 Q5 X6 78 6 O WH 75? GXV N 5 2 P :8
7 JX6 WO 8ing 7OU TWN 9 J7O8 F WO 8ing O7OU 26 QQ non-progressive 73H
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Progressive OÂ&#x2039;XX:Q 6 8 N6 7 O WH
Non-progressive OÂ&#x2039;XX:Q N
The children are dancing. The children dance My eyes are stinging.
My eyes sting
The wood is drying.
The wood dries
8 7O Q7 Q 7O8 F O8 X WO progressive O7OU WO nonprogressive X H H O I The work is rewarding.
~*the work rewards
The job was exacting.
~*the job exacted
Your paper was interesting. ~*your paper interested X H 5? ? F 7 J ? O P 2 non-progressive sentences G9?7OU F Q H 7 R F N? N G9?79R H G3? adjectival G F H J N GX N?7 F Q WO -ed 7 R JG3?26 very 7TEF FXP N? Q H 26 F8 ? N? 8ed I 7OU adjectival 9 E verbal 73H
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The bomb was detonated.
~*the bomb was very detonated.
This document is handwritten.
~*this document is very handwritten.
My house was built in only twelve weeks.
~*my house was very built in only twelve weeks.
Ten people were killed.
~*ten people were very killed.
G O P 25? ? H JG3? very N? QH Q JK 7OU 8 P 26 TWN (verbal) H 7OU 2 ? 73 26 2: T (adjectival construction) H R N Q I G WO -ed J73EF JE N? ? H G WO 8ing 7T P H 26 very Q 2 I JG3? N? I G 2 ? adjectival 8P the verbal constructions 73H %!
-
I was embarrassed. I was embarrassed by your behavior. I was very embarrassed. I was very embarrassed by your behavior. She was surprised. She was surprised by my reaction. She was very surprised. She was very surprised by my reaction. G3? by-agent phrase 73H by your behavior, by my reaction 7OU QH Q H WO 8ed 7OU verbal G 5? G3?Q 5 (complement 73H :O P 2 that (that-clause) JQH Q N? H 7OU adjectival 8 7O Q7 Q 2 ? O P 2 I H O I The jury was convinced that the defendant was innocent. %! : 2 P :8 N? Q ? ? H VW? ? 9 7OU VW?Q : ¡ The jury was convinced by the lawyer's argument. 2 P :8 N? Q ? ? N? 5? ? ? 5 2 H O I7OU H 5 adjectival construction (T ? N? complements) 8P verbal constructions (T ? N? 8 by-agent) - :
%!
-
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I was delighted to meet you again.
I was delighted by his compliments.
John is terrified of losing his job.
John is terrified by his boss.
I was frightened that i'd be late.
I was frightened by your expression.
I was disappointed to hear your decision.
I was disappointed by your decision.
9 WO -ed 7OU verbal 7 J7O8 F 2 ? QQ ( X ) 7OU QQ active ( : X ) N?
passive
Passive I was delighted by his compliments. X Active His compliments delighted me. : X N F N? Q 8? T X P P9 H 2 ? adjectival 8P verbal I Q 2 I 7 N5KI N Q Q 7T F 7 (additional context) 73H G3? by-agent phrases 9 E adjective complements H R 7 EF H QH 3 I O eG9?79R R 2 N GXG 73 H N? G9?T X X Q H H O I And you know if you don't know the simple command how to get out of something, you're sunk. But that's convenient because it's edged with wood, isn't it.
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N? WO5 8ed 8P 8ing participial forms H 7 EF N GX73 H N? 9 H V 26 73H The job was time-consuming. 8P The allegations were unfounded. dKF participial forms 6 9 ? F7OU 26 2: T
G 6 7N OÂ&#x2039; 9 N 8H XP H7 N 5KI 9 26 98 HG 3H 26 be 73H WO participial G O P 2 This book seems boring. 8P He remained offended. 8? 7OU 26 2: T 8 7O Q7 QO P 2 H O I John was depressed . John felt depressed. # *' , ? >9 9
3 ,m = +_ +*?' >2 > #2m 3a 30- 2m pa +" ,m ?aq participial adjective A @ ?aq verb 1. He told me a moving story about his childhood.
participial adjective verb
2. Our piano was tuned by a Mr. Beethoven.
participial adjective verb
3. I spent four hours calculating your tax returns.
participial adjective verb
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4. His new novel is open-ended.
participial adjective verb
5. The whole affair became terribly complicated.
participial adjective verb
? +- = *! = %! 7 EF 26 2: T H 26 WH 9 ? 26 6 9 N 2 T 73 86 N Q 86 N Q F 9 2 H G 5 P F 8:H 26 complex mathematical studies 7OU F Q N?G 73 8:H 26 mathematical complex studies R N? Q Q N? H ? H 28? N I a huge red bomber
~*a red huge bomber
a long narrow road
~*a narrow long road
the lovely little black Japanese box
~*the Japanese black little lovely box
G F I7 XP 8H JK X N86 N Q F O FG3? ? H XP HJK Q7OU L R dKF XP H G9?7 79R WHQH S %! (central adjectives) F7 N? Q 8? F 2: Q 7 M G X6 3 N 5 26 XK 2 7OU 2: T
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H 26 2: T F X (denominal) dKF 2: Q 5 26 WH N? 2 H I 2 6 2 H X N86 N Q5 26 2: T N F O F 26 2 7OU 2: T 7 H R F 8 P9H X 7OU 26 7 H I G 5? F 26 7OU 2: T ? 7 H R F 7OU 26 5KI 26 I RXP F 2 G 8?7 2 26 5KI 2 T 7 3 86 N Q5 O P7 26 2: T 798H I XK X N86 N Q X N7 86 N Q (1): central -- denominal -- noun %! Â? = %! +_ 9 -- X N7 86 N Q73H I N?X 8:H 26 complex mathematical studies 7OU H N? I H H O I expensive Russian dolls heavy woollen clothes polar bears
:Â&#x2020; F7OU V8 M X O P7 7d F 2 T
V? 5 F9 9 5 I 8
26 2: T Q (color adjectives) RX N7OU central adjectives HJ? 9 G3? H Q central adjective EF S 26 2: T Q XPG3? ?5? 98
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X N7 86 N Q (2): central -- color -- noun %! Â? = %! '+ -- expensive green dolls :Â&#x2020; 75 F 2 T heavy black clothes V? N6 F9 huge white bears 9 5 G9 H 8P ? H denominal adjectives X N7 86 N Q (3): color -- denominal -- noun green Russian dolls black woollen clothes white polar bears
:Â&#x2020; F7OU V8 M X O P7 7d F 75 V? 5 N6 9 5 I 8 5
Participial adjectives RG3? ?98 central adjectives X N7 86 N Q (4): Central -- participial -- denominal --noun %! Â? = %! +_ 9 - -- = %! +_ 9 - expensive carved Russian dolls
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:Â&#x2020; F7OU V8 M X O P7 7d P 8 F 2 T
heavy knitted woollen clothes
V? 5 QQJ F9
huge dancing polar bears
9 5 I 8 F 6 8 7 ? 6 G9 H
X N86 N Q QQ (1) - (4) 7OU Q X N98 S86 N Q X JK O P 2 F 26 2: T JK 8P H8P R7OU H O P7 G G3? X ? FXPTQ26 2: T attributive adjectives H 26 WHN? N 7fT P H F 7 EF 26 798H I 7OU 26 2 8PO P7 H H R F H TQ ? R X7 N5KI N? 73H certain expensive green Russian dolls :Â&#x2020; F7OU V8 M X O P7 7d 75 F 2 T dKF X N86 N Q7OU N I X N7 86 N Q (5): non-gradable -- central -- color -- denominal -- noun = %! +_?a +- ? +- p mp* -- %! Â? = %! '+ - = %! +_ 9 -- = %! +_?a +- ? +- p mp* G3? ?7OU 86 N Q O NNW H 7T F 7
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X N7 86 N Q (5a): non-gradable -- central t noun certain difficult problems OÂ&#x2039; 9 F X S X N7 86 N Q (5b): non-gradable -- participial -- noun sheer unadulterated nonsense 7 EF 798 98 H ?X X N7 86 N Q (5c): non-gradable -- denominal -- noun major medical advances 2 ? 9 ? T F 6 2
QJK I 7 N? Q86 N Q 26 2: T QQ H O P7 H R 7 N?79R G3?26 2: T FX N WHG O P7 7N N? 73H big old buildings K 7 H 8P5 NG9 H beautiful little flowers N ?78R S F rich young people VW?2 9 :H F PN X H 5? Q XP79R N? H 26 2: T : 26 7OU O P7 central adjectives 8P 6 G9? G N GXG 6 9 N98 G 86 N Q 6 9 H 7 98 9 E QQ V ?98 98 H H QQGN7OU F H T GX 9 E 2 2 Q28: N? H QW QQ 86 N Q 26 2: T I T8 H PN Q (degree) N G3? 5 2 H (premodification) 9 26 2: T 9 KF 9 E 26 WHG 86 N Q F JW 5 H 73H N? 26 H very N F O XP5 Q5KI 7OU 26 G 86 N Q 73H The laryngograph provides us with a very accurate non-invasive physical measure of voice.
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Q 2 I XPNW O8 OQ? 9 7 79R 26 very accurate WHG X N86 N Q 73H I ?The laryngograph provides us with a non-invasive very accurate physical measure of voice ?The laryngograph provides us with a non-invasive physical very accurate measure of voice G 5? 86 N Q 5 26 2: T N? X6 N PN Q O WH F attributive adjectives FJW 5 8? (premodified) 5 G9?T X H H O I a wealthy young businessman : X9 :H F PN a very wealthy young businessman : X9 :H F PN 7 H JO Q7O8 F 26 young G H N 8H G 5 P F 2 26 wealthy Yk young ?G 6 9 H 86 N Q N? 73H *a wealthy very young businessman 7 3H I 7 H J ? 26 young O ? F 6 9 H 8P O Q7O8 F G 5 P F2 PN Q Q ? (degree of acceptability) ?73H 7N ?a very young wealthy businessman
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+_?9Â&#x192;* - , ?%: 7 (adverbs) ? H 8 ? 26 QH PN Q 8P 7O Q7 Q XP3H G9?7 JQH Q 7 N? H 7
X6 F H J3 I7fT P N?N? 798H I 2 X 8? 9 G T 3 N5 26 7 (adverb class) 7OU 3 N26 F 2 98 98 F :NG Q N 3 N5 26 8PQ N 26 G 3 NN 8H N G9? 7 9R H 3H 5 W O QQ 8P9 ? F ? N? X6 7 73 2 H 5 26 HG 9 E 78H I7 XP7 W?7fT P 3 N F 6 2 F :N dKF 7 H - , ?%: 2 '< - , ?%: 2 '< 7 J (circumstantial adverbs) 7 F EF 2 7 F Q 8 P H 7 8 9 E J F F 7 N 79 : 9 E P 6 F7 H manner adverb 73H She sang loudly in the bath. 7 ? 7T8 7 N G 9? I6 The sky quickly grew dark. ? Â&#x2026;Â? EN2 KI H N7 R They whispered softly. T 75 Pd Q 7Q S
110
I had to run fast to catch the bus. f ? F H 7 R 7TEF G9? JO PX6 7 F Q 7 8 (time adverbs) H 7 T QH Q 7 8 F 7fT P7X PX 7 H I H Q 2 J F N?N? 73H I'll be checking out tomorrow. V XP X G T :H I Give it back, now! 7 8 Q2E N[cÂ&#x20AC;QVUcz ! John rarely rings any more. X 9 H2H T 8? I watch television sometimes. f NW 7OU Q 2 I 8P :N ? 2E 7 QH Q J F (place adverbs) 73H Put the box there, on the table. 8H ? F I Q Â&#x2020;P F I've left my gloves somewhere. f 8E J: E ? F 9 9H 9 KF 7 I O P7 I 2E manner, time 8P place 7OU F W?X G circumstantial adverbs G3?G QH Q F N8? F7 F 5? Q 79 : 9 E P 6 Linguistic Grammar Of English
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- how it happened (manner), when it happened (time), or where it happened (place).
# *' , ? >9 9
3 = + _ +*?' >2 #2m 3a 30- ,m ?aq - , ?%: a 3?. >* (adverb of manner, time A @ place) 1. The thief crept silently across the rooftops
manner time place
2. I'm not feeling well today
manner time place
3. The teacher smiled enigmatically
manner time place
4. We'll meet here after the match
manner time place
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5. My aunt never comes to visit
manner time place
= ? _ = #- # 3 = m 4+"?Â&#x152; 3 (additives, exclusives, and particularizers) = ? _ (additives) 9 JK 26 o7T F p F GN F 9 KF X6 9 E H F 75? N? N 7 ? H F 798H I ? 2 7 H [1] His prewar success had been as a light historical novelist; he employed similar fanciful ideas in his war novels [...] Her war novels are also dominated by romance and adventure. [2] American firms have an existing advantage as a greater number of their managers have technical or engineering degrees. Thai managers, too, have technical qualifications of a high order.
G O P 2 [1] 7 also 3 I G9?79R 2 28? 28K P9 H oHis war novelsp 8P5 oHer war novelsp G O P 2 [2] 7 too 6 9 ? F28? 2E 7 ? 2 7OU X F H o2: Q 5 Thai managersp 28? Q 2: Q 5 American managersp
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26 #- (exclusive) G9?2 GXG 7X PX H 26 P 8P 2 7OU O N? EF S O 73H [3] It's just a question of how we organise it. [4] The federal convention [...] comes together solely for the purpose of electing the President. G O P 2 [3] just H N? JK 26 J EF S FT X N? G 5 P F O P 2 [4] solely 3 IG9?79R 2 7OU X F H pfederal conventionp H 9 ? F EF GN X 78E I O P QN H 26 7fT P EF SO P QN? alone, exactly, merely, and simply = m 4+"?Â&#x152; 3 (particularizers) :H 2 GX O F 26 P 98 H H 2 7OU O N? EF S 73H [5] The pastoralists are particularly found in Africa. [6] Now this book is mostly about what they call modulation. G O P 2 [5] 7OU Q N H oAfricap H N?7OU J F 9H 7N F opastoralistsp WH G 5 P FT 75 H G9 H WH F F H R Q 2 WH F EF G O P 2 [6] Q N H 9 E H G9 H7OU 9 E 7 F Q omodulationp H R 7 EI 9 7 F Q9 5? EF Q? 26 F7OU = m 4+"?Â&#x152; 3 @_ z 73H largely, mainly, primarily, 8P predominantly # *' , ? >9 114
9
3 ,m = - , ?%: (adverb) +_ +*?' >2 > #2m 3a 30- 2m pa +" ?aq additive, exclusive, A @ a particularizer. 1. She was especially pleased to read about your award.
additive exclusive particularizer
2. We're only trying to help, you know.
additive exclusive particularizer
3. The rise in sea level is largely due to global warming.
additive exclusive particularizer
4. Patiwat was both a coward and a thief.
additive exclusive particularizer
5. Peace is precisely what i'm looking for.
additive exclusive particularizer
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1 12 3456789 :9;: wh 1 12 3 N H FJE 7OU 3 NT 7 9 2 JK 8:H 26 F 5KI ? N? wh- 26 F7 TQQH S 73H when, where 8P why ? H G 2 7OU X 8:H 26 798H IXP 26 whence, whereby, wherein 8P whereupon 8P7 Q how ?G 8:H IN? N 7 26 8:H I H wh-adverbs 26 Q 26 G 8:H I JG3?5KI ? G O P 226 J 73H When are you going to Bombay? 2: XP7N O : Q 7Q 7 EF Where did you leave the car? 2: X N J ? F 9 Why did you resign? 6 2: XK 8 X How did you become interested in theatre? 2: W ? K GX7 F Q 8P2 N? H
X I JG3?5KI ? :O P 2 N? 73H This is the town where Soontorn Phu was born. F2E 7 E F : W7H N I've no idea how it works. f H Q78 H 6 N? H
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- , ?%: 3*! a 30 7 PN QO P 2 (sentence adverbs) J :O N?N? T X NW H 2 79 P G O P 2 I O P 2 G 3H7 fT PQ H 5 O P 2 8 T X O P 2 H O I Honestly, it doesn't matter. N? 2 X H7OU 78 X O P 2N 8H 7 honestly 6 9 ? F5 O P 2 I O P 2 8P7OU N 2 2 N79R 5 VW?TWN H F F 6 8 TWNJK (when I say it doesn't matter, I am speaking honestly). O P 2 H O I7OU H 7T F 7 Clearly, he has no excuse for such behavior. H 3 N7X 78 75 H 26 ? 6 9 QT QQ I Frankly, I don't care about your problems. TWNX S f H GXOÂ&#x2039; 9 5 2: 9 Unfortunately, no refunds can be given. 32 ? X S H 7 X6 9 F J2E G9? N?78 7 Q 26 G O P 273EF O P 275? QO P 2 F WH5? 9 ? 73H Thailand played well in the first half. However, in the second half their weaknesses were revealed. 78H N?N G 2 KF 7 8 H R G 2 KF 7 8 98 7 7 F 79R 2 H 8? FT 75 N
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7 26 EF SO P7 I 73H accordingly, consequently, hence, moreover, similarly, 8P therefore
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+_#a* = 26 Q: TQ (prepositions) H JX6 N?N? 2: 8 P7fT P 8:H 26 prepositions 798H IXP Q O P7NR I N? across, after, at, before, by, during, from, in, into, of, on, to, under, with, without H R 7 JG3? preposition ?9 ? 26 73H across town after class at home before Tuesday by Shakespeare
for lunch in London on fire to school with pleasure
26 HX6 7OU ? ?98 preposition 7 EF X X 26 determiners 8P adjectives 2 I ? 73H after the storm on white horses under the old regime
98 T :VH O Q 98 ? 5 G ? PQ Q O 2 QQ7 H
H H XP determiners 9 E adjectives 2 F 8 9 E H prepositions R 26 98 G 2 7OU X F7 OU QQfQ Q5 prepositions 9 H 26 7 7 H ostrandedp prepositions 9 E Q: TQ o8 p73H
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26 98
H 26 A @ -
John talked about the new film.
This is the film john talked about.
H R prepositions WO2 F 8H 2E H 7O8 F WO # *' , ? >9 9 9= # > , 2m pa +",m ?aq 4 *>*
Dorothy Gilman attended the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts from 1940 to 1945, the University of Pennsylvania, the Moore Institute of Art, and the Arts Students' League from 1963 to 1964. She worked as an instructor of drawing in adult evening school for two years at the Samuel Fleisher Art Memorial. She has also worked as a switchboard operator for the American Bell Telephone Company, and as an instructor in creative writing at Cherry Lawn School, Darien, Connecticut, from 1969 to 1970.
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+_? a 3?. ?4@_ , 73EF 2 (coordination) G O P 2 73EF N G3? 73EF 26 GN26 9 KF N I and, but 9 E or G O P 2 [1] 73EF 2 26 G 78RQ 6 N G3?26 and [1] [Quickly] and [resolutely], he strode into the bank 26 73EF 3 N F 26 73EF O e WHN? I 7 H syndetic coordination 73EF 2 J 6 N? N H 26 73EF O e R N? 73H G O P 2 [2] [2] [Quickly], [resolutely], he strode into the bank XP79R N? H H 26 73EF O eG9?79R G O P 2 H 2 73EF 2 WH 73EF 2 73H I7 7 H asyndetic coordination 7 EF 73EF 2 I H 2 5KI O 26 73EF XPO e WH P9 H 2 :N ? 7 H I 73H [3] I need [bread], [cheese], [eggs], and [milk] F2E 73EF 26 98 (syndetic coordination) 7 EF X G3? 26 73EF 2 (coordinating conjunction) 9 TQ H G3?26 73EF P9 H : S5? 2 7 RXP W? K O8 S 73H [3a] I need [bread] and [cheese] and [eggs] and [milk]
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73EF 2 73H I7 H polysyndetic coordination Q 2 I 6 G3?7TEF 9 V8Q O P 73H 7TEF N 2 H 7 EF [4] This play will [run] and [run] and [run] [5] He just [talks] and [talks] and [talks]
# *' , ? >9 9
3 = ?4@_ > a 30- 2m pa +",m ?aq = ?4@_ # syndetic, asyndetic A @ polysyndetic
1. Susie and Pimpa called for you this morning.
syndetic asyndetic polysyndetic
2. You wouldn't believe how many exams I've got. I've got semantics and pragmatics and sociolinguistics and psycholinguistics and syntax. 3. This wine has a rich, fruity, fullbodied quality.
syndetic asyndetic polysyndetic
syndetic asyndetic polysyndetic
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4. I'd like ham, eggs and fried bread for breakfast.
syndetic asyndetic polysyndetic
5. It was [a happy time], a carefree time, [a period of our lives which we will never forget.
syndetic asyndetic polysyndetic
?4@_ , +_p m< 2
Q 2 I 6 26 73EF G3? N H72 H 2 NG 9 ? F5 26 (false coordination) 73H I'll come when I'm good and ready. G F I 26 2: T good 8P ready H73 H XP73EF 2 dKF 8P J? 9 7OU 73EF 26 X 8? O P 2N 8H XP 2 9 H I'll come [when I'm good] and [when I'm ready] 9 NWG9?3 N 8? F HG3H2 9 dKF good and ready ? EF H26 good and 7 ? 2 9 5 26 ready G9?9 H 5KI 7 X 7 O P 2G9 H N?N I I'll come when I'm completely ready.
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good and ready G F IJE 7OU H 5 false coordination 8H 2E G3? 26 73EF N H Q Q G 73EF 26 Q 2 I X7 H 9 KF H pseudo-coordination. False coordination JTQ N?G N 2 W? K QQ H7OU N? G3?26 try and 73H Please try and come early. I'll try and ring you from the office. G H I R73H 7N HG3H 73EF 2 H ?X N H G O P 2 H N?9 2 H please try, and please come early. H 2 9 73H 7N Q please try to come early. G TWN QQ H7OU 5 and 8P but JW G3? 7OU false coordinators QH S N H Q Q G 73EF 2 F7 N5KI X H H O IXP3H G9? 79R T N?3 N7X 5KI a: Well he told me it's this super high-flying computer software stuff. I'm sure it's the old job he used to have cleaning them b: But it went off okay last night then did it? Did you have a good turnout? X H 26 but F b G3? H N?73EF 2 GNS H7OU 7 F ? TWN 8P 6 O WH 7O8 F OTWN7 F Q9 5? G9 H JK H I 7 N? Q7 F Q 3 N 5 26 F 6 2 7 3 N G H G9 H JX N75? O WHG H ? 9 KF 3 N26 H R 26 Q H F H JX N 75? ? G 3 N26 GN F 8H 73H 26 H hello dKF HG3H26 9 E 26 2: T 9 E 26 9 E 26 3 N EF S F7 N? W?X 8? H7OU 26 F WHG 3 N26 (minor word class) dKF 7 7 H = +_>4 9 ?aq ' 2 2 -2!, (formulaic expressions)
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= +_>4 9 ?aq ' 2 2 -2!, G N 8H 8H 6 8 N 2 5 Q2: 9 E 8H 5 7 G3? 8:H 26 +_>4 9 ?aq ' 2 2 -2!, (formulaic expressions) 26 798H I XO P QN? 26 9 KF 26 9 E - 26 7OU 9 KF 9 H 26 73H bye goodbye hello farewell hi so long
excuse me thanks thank you thanks a lot sorry pardon
= +_>4 9 ?aq ' 2 2 -2!,Q 26 N 2 79R N? 9 E H79R N? Q F VW?TWN N?TWN 73H Yes, yeah, no, okay, right, sure 26 : (interjections) N O 7 fT PG TWN 9 E G 6 7 26 TWNG dKF O P QN? 26 798H I Ah, eh, hmm, oh, ouch, phew, shit, tsk, uhm, yuk 26 798H I JG3? N N? 2 W? K N? H ? 5 I 2 W? K O P98 NGX (oh!) 2 W? K (shit!) 8P N 2 7 X (yuk!). = +_ >4 9 ?aq ' 2 2 -2! , JK 26 : N H 7 O8 F WO QQ 8H 2E H V WON?
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+'_ >4 existential there 7 N? Q 8? H 26 there 7OU 26 7 G O P 2 73H You can't park there. 2: X N J F F H N? I went there last year. f O F F 7 EF O[ H N 7fT P H F 7OU 26 7 FQH Q 7 F Q J F N H 5? ? H R J 6 G3? N? QQ9 KF G P7OU existential there N G3? ? F ? O P 2 73H There is a fly in my soup. 8 9 KF G d:O5 f There were six errors in your essay. 5? V NT8 N9 9H G 7 2 5 2: Existential there N? 26 be 8P7 EF 6 OG3?G O P 2 26 J XPG3? ? 98 26 Is there a problem with your car? 7 NOÂ&#x2039; 9 P Q J5 2: 9 E 7O8H Was there a storm last night? 7 EF 2E H T :7 N5KI 9 E 7O8H G3? there I QQ J7 N5KI N?G O P 27N 73H There is a parking space there. F H 6 9 QX N J WH ?
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X H 5? ? there 7OU existential there H F 7OU adverb >4 it G H F7 8H JK 26 T (pronoun) XP79R N? H 26 it 7OU 26 T Q: : F WO7 TX H R 26 I J 6 9 ? F N? 98 Q Q dKF H 7 F Q Q Q 73 26 T dKF 7 XP7 W? G3? N 8H H O I 7 EF 7 TWNJK 7 8 9 E 7 G3?O P 2 H O I 73H What time is it? F 8? It is four o'clock. F It is snowing. 9 P 6 8 9 E 7O8H It's going to rain. Â&#x2C6; 6 8 XP G F I 7 H J7X PX 8 O N? H it 9 JK P 7OU 8H ? JK H ? S dKF 7 7 H dummy it 26 dummy it JG3? N? H 7 H 7 8P ? S G N 2 W? K QQ EF N? 73H Hold it! X Q ? Take it easy! GX7 R S Can you make it to my party? 2: XP O 78 I 5 f N?9 E 7O8H Q 2 I G3? it 7TEF o2 N p Q H FXP7 N5KI G 7 8 H G O P 27N 73H It's great to see you. 7 F F N?TQ2: It's a pity you can't come to my party. H 7 N F2: H J 78 I N?
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G O P 2 it 6i [f gmo7 VS [aq^iXm 7 J8P26 it G O P 2 8? G H to see you N? 73H To see you is great. 7 EF X Q Q 9 ? F G O P 2O P7 I 7 XK 7 H anticipatory it 9 E it 7 F 6
# *' , ? >9 9
3 ,m = +_ +*?' >2 > #2m 3a 30- ?aq pronoun it dummy A @ anticipatory it 1. It won't do any good to hide from me.
pronoun it dummy it anticipatory it
2. I think you've broken it.
pronoun it dummy it anticipatory it
3. It's very kind of you to see me at short notice.
pronoun it dummy it anticipatory it
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4. It was after midnight when i left the office.
pronoun it dummy it anticipatory it
5. I've had it with this place - I'm leaving!
pronoun it dummy it anticipatory it
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+_' ? Â&#x192;* , + JK Q I7 2 N?7 W? 72 P9 PN Q ? H 2 QJ? 8? dKF 7 N?7 W?7 F Q26 N 7fT P 8P QH 3 N5 26 N 7 M 7OU 98 QH 3 N5 26 7OU F F 6 2 G ? TEI G 72 P9 G PN Q H O dKF 7 XP7 W7? F Q9 H 26 (unit) dKF XP7OU O P 2 F 5KI G H I 7 XP K 7 F Q 8 9 E 8:H 26 (phrase) = 9= !* , , + 7 EF 7 T X 26 8P26 T 7 N? Q 8? H Q 2 I G O P 27 JG3? 26 T 26 N? 73H [children] should watch less television. ~[they] should watch less television. X O P 2 I XP79R N? H G3? pronoun they noun children H5 G9?T X O P 2 H O I [the children] should watch less television. ~[they] should watch less television. G H N 8H they H N? G 3? children H JW G3? the children dKF 7OU 9 H 26 FO P QN? determiner 8P noun 7 8H JK 9 H 26 8 P I H 7OU noun phrase (np) 8PG9?26 X6 N2 H 7OU 9 H 26 dKF 26 F WH 8 7OU 26 noun N H 7T F 7 H O I
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I like [the title of her book] ~I like [it] G I 26 T it H7T 7fT P noun9 KF 26 7 H I H F noun phrase F 2 9? 26 2E the title of her book N? N I F7 XP 8H H pronoun JG3? noun N? 9 XPG9?JW ? F 5KI 7 ? 8H H pronoun JG3? noun phrase N? 26 F WH 8 8 7 JE H 7OU head 5 8 I G noun phrase F H the children I head 5 8 R2E children H G noun phrase the title of her book head 5 8 R2E title 8 9 E noun phrase H ? 8:H 26 (strings of elements) 2 X XO P QN? 26 7T 26 7N R N? 73H 26 children G O P 2 Children should watch less television. dKF 7OU 8 ? H XP 26 F7OU head 7T 26 7N G PN Q 3 N 5 26 (word class) H 7 XPQ H children 7OU W O T9WTX 8P7OU common noun HG 72 P9 PN Q 8 (phrase-level analysis) 7 7 26 children H 7OU noun phrase dKF HJE 7OU 7 EF PQQ 26 T F H 78 8H 2E 7 7 H 7OU noun phrase 7 EF X J 5 2 O N? 7TEF G9? N?2 3 N7X 5KI X I7 OU ? O 7 XP7 F G3? 26 T G PN Q 8 F O H I 7 XP 6 9 N5 Q75 8 N? G H 78R Q ? 7 3H 7N Q F 7 N? 6 ? F H O P 25? Q 0
' @" 1 , + 8 (phrase) O P QN? 26 98 (head) 7OU H ? dKF 9 2 H G 8 QQ26 7N F (one-word phrase) 9 2 H one-word
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phrase 73H [children] head 2E children G 8 F H I X G3?26 98 H ?9 ? head 73H [the small children] 7 XP7 26 98 H I H the pre-head string 26 98 H XG3? ?98 head N? N F7 7 H post-head string 73H [the small children in class 5] N I 7 XK 2 ? TEI 3 H (basic three-part structure): Pre-head string
Head
m = +_ m = A ! [the small
Post-head string
= A ! m = +_ A ! = A ! children In class 5]
G Q N 3 H I 7fT P H head 7 H I FX6 7OU ? G 8 H J 7 ? N? 7TEF G9?75? GX N? H 5KI 7 8 N8 8PQ H 8 Q N I Pre-head string
Head
m = +_ m = A !
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Post-head string
= A ! m = +_ A ! = A !
[--
children In class 5]
*[the small
--
[the small
children --]
In class 5]
m = +_ m = A ! 8P m = +_ A ! = A ! J8P ? N? G 5 P F 9 E 8 2 2 9 QW WH X I7 J8P m = I N? N 2 ? H26 98 N I Pre-head string
Head
m = +_ m = A ! [--
Post-head string
= A ! m = +_ A ! = A ! children --]
dKF 9 E 8 2 2 9 QW WH H R 7 EF 8P 26 98 ? H F798E RXP 8 7OU 8 F H QW 73H *the small in class five XK 7OU 7 E F 7 OU O P 3 G X6 26 98 5 8 N F O 26 98 7OU H FX6 7OU H 7N G 8 # *' , ? >9 9
3 = A ! (head) = A @ , + (noun phrase) +_ = A *p, > , ? Â&#x192; 1. [ Cats] make very affectionate pets. 2. [ The editor] rejected the manuscript. 3. We drove through [an enormous forest] in Germany. 4. [People who cycle] get very wet. 5. We really enjoy [the funny stories he tells]. , +a 3?. @_ z
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G 8 P7N Q F26 6 9 ? F7 OU 26 98 5 8 26 6 9 ? F7OU 26 98 5 8 8P 26 2: T 6 9 ? F7OU 26 98 5 2: T 8 8P EF S 7 XX6 O P7 5 8 7OU 5 O P7 N I 4 *
= A !
2!, -m
Noun phrase 8
Noun
[the children in class 5]
Verb phrase 8
Verb
[play the piano]
Adjective phrase 2: T 8
Adjective 2: T
[delighted to meet you]
Adverb phrase 7 8
Adverb [very quickly] 7
Prepositional phrase Preposition [in the garden] Q: TQ 8 Q: TQ 7TEF 2 PN 7 XPG3? H 5? 8H I 8 H8PO P7 4 *
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= -m
Noun phrase
Np
Verb phrase
Vp
Adjective phrase
Ap
Adverb phrase
Advp
Prepositional phrase
Pp
N? G3?26 H 798H I 7 XP JT T phrase N? KQ 8PG H ?G 78RQ dKF 7 XP 6 N T T KQ F 2 ?G 78RQ7OÂ&#x201E;N [np the small children in class 5] H X I XP 8H JK phrase I 5 O P7 7T F 7 78R ? 8 : noun phrase (np) F7 N? Q 8? H 8 26 6 9 ? F7OU 26 98 9 E head 26 QH 3 I (determiners) 8P2: T 8 (adjective phrases) H G9?7 N 2 ? QQ pre-head string 73H [np the children] [np happy children] [np the happy children] L H ? F :N post-head string G np J 2 N? HX6 N 73H [np the dog that chased the cat that killed the mouse that ate the cheese that was made from the milk that came from the cow that...] [np : 5 F 8H dKF 9 W F 7 5R F 6 X F N? X dKF ....]
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Q7OU 32N FG G3?X S H2H TQ 26 8 F 2 73H I 26 98 9 E head 5 np HX6 7OU ? 7OU 9 E 8 Q F F7 Q 8? H T 7OU 3 N H 5 26 N I T R J 6 9 ? F7OU head 5 np N?N? 73H [np i] like coffee f 3 Q Â&#x2026; the waitress gave [np me] the wrong dessert 9 V N3 N G9?f
T Q 6 5
[np this] is my car F2E J 5 f 9 H head 2E 26 T np XPO P QN? head H 7N 7 H I I I7T P H T H ? G3?26 QH 3 I 9 E 26 2: T N I XK H prehead string H R 9 G3?26 T X post-head string N? 73H [np those who arrive late] cannot be admitted until the interval VW? F JK 3? XP H N? Q : G9?75? N? X H XPJK 3H 7 8 T G 8 PG 8?72 X6 dKF 7OU 3 N26 H 5 26 J 6 9 ? F7OU head 5 np N? 73H [np two of my guests] have arrived [np the first to arrive] was john
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5 5 f 2 JK 8? 2 F JK 2E X 9
- , +: verb phrase (vp) G - , + head 7OU 26 pre-head string J? XP7OU 26 Oe 7 73H not G O P 2 [1] 9 E never G O P 2 [2], 9 E - , ?%: , +G O P 2 [3]: [1] [vp not compose an aria] [2] [vp never compose an aria] [3] Paul [vp deliberately broke the window] 8 X6 F ? G3? post-head string 5? 98 73H My son [vp made a cake] -- (7O Q7 Q Q: *my son made) We [vp keep pigeons] -- (7O Q7 Q Q: *we keep) I [vp recommend the fish] -- (7O Q7 Q Q: *I recommend) F ? G3? post-head string I 7 H transitive verbs 6 9 Q post-head string G H 5? ? I 7 H 26 F7OU (direct object) G 5? 26 Q H ? G3?26 F7OU 78 73H Sunisa [vp smiled] The professor [vp yawned] dKF 7 W?X G intransitive verbs 9 E 26 F H ? Q H R H G9 H G 7OU N? I Q (transitive) 8P H Q (intransitive) N H I H O I
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Intransitive: david smokes transitive: david smokes cigars %! , +: adjective phrase (ap) G 2: T 8 (adjective phrase (ap)) 26 F7OU 26 98 R2E 26 2: T (adjective) N H H O I Sunisa is [ap clever] The doctor is [ap very late] My youngest daughter is [ap fond of animals] Pre-head string G ap N O 7OU 8 (adverb phrase) 73H very 9 E extremely H 26 2: T 98 XG3? post-head string 98 73H [ap happy to meet you] [ap ready to go] [ap afraid of the dark] 26 2: T 98 X6 H F baP N? post-head string 9 KF G I 26 H fond N? 5 G9?T X 7O Q7 Q N I My youngest daughter is [ap fond of animals] *My youngest daughter is [fond]
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- , ?%: , + G 7 8 (adverb phrase (advp)) 26 F7OU 26 98 (head word) 2E 26 7 (adverb) N F O H G9 H 8:H 26 H 26 98 (pre-head string) RJE 7OU 7 8 H 9 KF 73H Duangdao graduated [advp very recently] Sorayut [advp quite suddenly] G - , ?%: , + HG3? 8:H 26 98 26 98 (post-head string) 98 H WHQ? dKF 7OU X6 ? 73H [advp unfortunately for him], his wife came home early , + Q: TQ 8 (prepositional phrase (pp)) O P QN? 26 98 (head) 2E (preposition) 8P 8:H 26 98 26 98 post-head string 7 H I N H H O I [pp through the window] [pp over the bar] [pp across the line] [pp after midnight] dKF XP3H G9?7 J 7 Q: TQ 8 N? H F 2E Q: TQ 8 7 F ? N? Q: TQ (preposition) XP79R 6 8:H 26 H 26 98 (pre-head string) G3?N? ? N H H O I [pp straight through the window] [pp right over the bar] [pp just after midnight] Linguistic Grammar Of English
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# *' , ? >9 9
3 a 3?. , +> a 30- 2m pa +",m ?aq a 3?. >* 1. Houses are [unbelievably expensive] just now.
adjective phrase adverb phrase noun phrase prepositional phrase verb phrase
2. We [met Prem] last friday.
adjective phrase adverb phrase noun phrase prepositional phrase verb phrase
3. [a car that won't go] is not particularly useful.
adjective phrase adverb phrase noun phrase prepositional phrase verb phrase
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4. I enjoy eating [in Thai restaurants].
adjective phrase adverb phrase noun phrase prepositional phrase verb phrase
5. Don't you have to leave [early]?
adjective phrase adverb phrase noun phrase prepositional phrase verb phrase
6. Tell [him] not to worry.
adjective phrase adverb phrase noun phrase prepositional phrase
verb phrase
, +. -> , + 7 XP :O 6 7 G9? W?X Q 8 N? T X 8 O P7 H SG 8 H S H I S 5 G9?T X np H O I Linguistic Grammar Of English
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[np small children] Np N 8H O P QN? i `kWf 2E children 8P fkXS i fSPUi `kWf 2E small G 8 (np) dKF 7OU 26 2: T N I XK JE H 6 9 ? F7OU i `kWf 5 2: T 8 5 7 I I 7 Q N?X 5 2 O7TEF ? 2 73EF 5? 2 F 5KI 73H very small children I 26 98 F7OU 2: T (adjective head) 2E small 8:H 26 F H 26 98 (pre-head string) 7 N5KI 8? 2E very [ap very small] N I small children 7 ap small dH WH (embedded) Q np small children N N ?G H H O I [np [ap small] children] 8 : O P7 XPO P QN? 8 78R SO P Q WH N H H O I [pp across the road] X H N 8H 26 98 2E across 8P 8:H 26 98 26 98 (post-head string) 2E the road XP79R N? H the road 7 6 9 ? F7OU 8 (np) 8H 2E 26 road 7OU 26 98 8P 8:H 26 H 26 98 (pre-head string 2E the N I 7 XK np WHN? G N I [pp across [np the road]] 7 EF 7 ? X Q 8 O NX6 ? H ? T X 9 8 EF S Fd? WH N?
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+_' '
a 30- # 3a 30 :O P 2 8PO P 2(clause and sentence) FVH 7 N?T X 8P7 W?2H 5? 8P7 NG 7 EF 7 F Q 8 G G3?O P 3 X H G3? 8 7N F SG F WHG J F N8? FX6 N S 73H 7 XP TQ 8 7N F S FO Â? P 8P26 7 E H S 73H [exit] [sale] [restricted area] [hyde park] Q 2 I 7 G3? 8 7N F SG TWN N 7fT PG Q26 J 73H Q: What would you like to drink? A: [np coffee] Q: How are you today? A: [ap fine] Q: Where did you park the car? A: [pp behind the house] H R G G3? QQ F O G3? 8 V V 75? Q9 H 26 F 5KI F7 7 H :O P 2 (clause) 73H Q: What would you like to drink? A: [I'd like coffee]
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Q: How are you today? A: [I'm fine] Q: Where did you park the car? A: [I parked the car behind the house]
0
' a 30 2 ? :O P 2 (clause hierarchy) 9 7 T X O P 2 5? 8H I 9 N O P 2 F H I'd like coffee I 7OU :O P 29 E O P 2 H (subordinate clause) 5 O P 2 I think I'd like coffee. dKF 7 7 H O P 2 98 9 E :5 O P 2 (matrix clause):
O P 2 matrix clause 7OU O P 2G9 H (superordinate) 79 E O P 2 H 9 E :O P 2 (subordinate clause) 9 KF 26 subordinate 8P superordinate 7OU 26 F 2 T 26 I Q 2 T
P9 H clause dKF 7 H clause hierarchy 9 E 86 N Q3 I 5 :O P 2 H 5? 8H IXP3H G9?75? GX2 9 F 5KI ?XP7OU H O P 2 F 2 d Qd? O 9 H R He said I think I'd like coffee.
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N I matrix clause XP7OU N I He said I think I'd like coffee. O P 2 matrix clause I O P QN? subordinate clauses X6 clauses N H O I7 XP7 H sub1 8P sub2
Sub1 I 7OU I subordinate 8P superordinate 7OU subordinate F T Q matrix clause 8P7OU superordinate F T Q sub2 N I subordinate 8P superordinate XK HJE 7OU PQQ26 T H ?X subordinate 8P superordinate 3H G9?7 Q H P9 H 8 H S XPJW X N 2 T H 7OU 86 N Q H 7 JG3? 78RQ 8P7 ? KQ F clauses 73H 7N Q F7 N?G3? Q phrases N 7 XPG3? H H O I Matrix clause: mc subordinate clause: subc G3? 7 ? KQ 8P 78RQ QO P 2 H 5 7 XP N?N I [mc i think [subc I'd like coffee]]
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73H 7N Q 8 H S 7 J2 clause ? (embedding) N?73H I subordinate clause JW 2 ?G matrix clause G O P 2 H F PN Q 2 9 E Â&#x2C6;Â&#x2039; ? (embedding) 5KI dKF subordinate clauses JK clauses N? [mc he said [subc I think [subc I'd like coffee]]]
# *' , ? >9 > #2m 3a 30- 2m pa +"a 3 * ,- clause 9= , ' clauses I`_ p* c1, c2, # 3 c3 * ,- ! : 2!, ` 9 9 * ,m , m +" < A @ Â&#x2C6; * [c1 the bank manager suggested [c2 that we should consider [c3 leasing the building] A. C1 is the matrix clause
true false
B. C2 is superordinate to c1
true false
C. C3 is subordinate to c1
true false
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D. C3 is superordinate to c2
true false
a 30- 3 # 3p m 3 :O P 2 PQ: 8 8P H PQ: 8(finite and non-finite clauses) 9 T X JK 26 X6 N2 FG3? N? (working definition) 7 J TWN N? H clauses O P QN? H ? F :N2E 8 (verb phrase) 73H [mc [vp stop]] [mc David [vp composed an aria] when he was twelve] [mc My solicitor [vp sent me a letter] yesterday] H 798H I N G9?79R H clause JO P Q5KI N? 9 H 26 (element) EF S H I7 XPG9?2 6 2 Q 7 W?7 F Q vp 7 N? Q 8? H verb (dKF R WHG vps N? ) 7OU N? I finite 9 E nonfinite N I 7 XK JG3?5? H IG X6 clause Clause 7 R7OU N? I finite 9 E nonfinite Finite verb phrases tense WHN? 8P clause F finite verb phrases O P Q WH 7 H finite clauses N H H O I [1] She writes home every day (finite clause -- present tense verb) [2] She wrote home yesterday (finite clause -- past tense verb)
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G 5? nonfinite verb phrase H tense 26 98 7OU N? I to-infinitive [3] bare infinitive [4] WO 8ed [5] 9 E gRZ-ing [6] [3]Victor loves [to play the piano] [4] We made [victor play the piano] [5] [Written in 1864], it soon became a classic [6] [Leaving home] can be very traumatic O P 298 9 E matrix clauses 7OU finite 73H G O P 2 [1] 8P [2] H R matrix clauses X :O P 2 H PQ: 8 9 E nonfinite subordinate clauses O P Q WHN? R N? N H H O I [mc Victor loves [subc to play the piano]] G O P 2 I 7 finite matrix clause 8H 2E love dKF 7OU 26 98 WO 7OU present tense 8PG finite matrix clause I a nonfinite subordinate clause to play the piano WHN? 26 98 2E play WHG WO to-infinitive G 5? subordinate clauses J7OU N? I finite 9 E nonfinite 73H Finite: He said [subc that they stayed at a lovely hotel] -- past tense Nonfinite: I was advised [subc to sell my old car] -- to-infinitive
148
# *' , ? >9 9
3 ,m clause +_ - m> , ? Â&#x192; ?aq finite A @ nonfinite 1. [everybody left just after the ceremony]
finite
2. [inviting your sister] was not a great decision
finite
3. I'll be home around ten [if my train is on time]
finite
4. [they expect Susan to do all the work]
finite
5. [deprived of oxygen], plants will quickly die
finite
nonfinite
nonfinite
nonfinite
nonfinite
nonfinite
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4 * a 30 a 30- (subordinate clauses) X7OU N? I finite( PQ: 8) 9 E nonfinite( H PQ: 8) X X6 3 N QQ ? S 7 JT X 5? H N? 7 XP7 F ? T X F subordinate clauses dKF N G9?79R 2 H X 8 P7fT P 8P I 3EF WO QQ5 26 F 7OU WH 73H To-infinitive clause: You must book early [to secure a seat] Bare infinitive clause: They made [the professor forget his notes] -ing participle clause: His hobby is [collecting old photographs] -ed participle clause: [rejected by his parents], the boy turned to a life of crime 7TEF 2 PN Q 2 I 7 7 clause first element 5 73H If-clause: I'll be there at nine [if I catch the early train]
150
N F7 XP N?79R G 9 ? J N O H Q 2 I 7 7 if-clauses H conditional clauses. That-clause: Dara thinks [that we should have a meeting] Element that I Q 2 I J8P ? N? 73H Dara thinks [we should have a meeting]
a 30O P 2 H (subordinate clause) O P7 9 KF F 6 2 2E 2: : O P 2 (relative clause) N H H O I The man [who lives beside us] is ill the video [which you recommended] was terrific N O relative clauses relative pronoun ?5? 9 ? 73H who 9 E which H R relative pronoun R X8P ? N?73H 7N 73H The video [you recommended] was terrific G 8 P F H 2: :O P 2O P7 8N WO (reduced relative clause) H relative pronoun, 8P26 7OU nonfinite 73H The man [living beside us] is ill (7O Q7 Q Q: the man [who lives beside us]...)
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a 30 :O P 2 (nominal relative clauses 9 E independent relatives) 6 9 ? FG 8 P7N Q noun phrases 73H [what I like best] is football (cf. The sport I like best...) The prize will go to [whoever submits the best design] (cf. The person who submits...) My son is teaching me [how to use email] (cf. The way to use email) This is [where Sunthorn Phu was born] (cf. The place where...) 2 28? 28K Q 8 (np) J Q N?X X6 F H 73H ? 9 : [what we need] is a plan A 9 : [what we need] are new ideas 5 G9? 7 V 26 G9? N28? QO P (agreement) (7 TX ) 8P are (T9WTX )
N? is
a 30- +_p m + - G ? I 7 XP 8H JK O P7 5 clause F O8 X O 78R ? 2E O P7 H (verbless) 9 E small clause G 5 P F clause F S OXPO P QN? 26 H H XP7OU finite 9 E nonfinite R H small clauses H 26 F3 N7X 9 E HO eG9?79R 73H
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Susan found [the job very difficult] 7 JE H F7OU 9 KF unit 7 EF X 79R N?3 N H H8P H H J X N? F F Susan TQ I HG3H the job H7OU the job very difficult 8P7 72 P9 N? H unit N 7fT P H F 7OU clause 7T P H 7 J 26 F H 2E G WO 73H Susan found [the job (to be) very difficult] H H O I7OU H 7T F 7 5 small clause Suksan considers [Dan an idiot] the jury found [the defendant guilty] [lunch over], the guests departed quickly O P7 5 clause F N? 8H JK 8? I JX6 N? N? 8 P7fT P73 WO QQ (formal characteristic) G H O7 XPX6 2 9
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4 * a 30- +_9= # 2 , A G H I7 XP7 W?7 F Q subordinate clause G H2 9 O P7 2 9 F 6 2 (main semantic types) N H 5? 8H I 3 N5 : O P 2 Temporal PQ:3H 7 8
2!, -m
I'll ring you again [before I leave] Dane joined the army [after he graduated] [when you leave], please close the door I read the newspaper [while I was waiting]
Conditional PQ:7 EF 5
I'll be there at nine [if I can catch the early train] [provided he works hard], he'll do very well at school don't call me [unless its an emergency]
Concessive
3 , !*#-
He bought me a lovely gift, [although he can't really afford it] [even though he worked hard], he failed the final exam [while I don't agree with her], i can understand her viewpoint
154
3 N5 : O P 2 Reason
3 ?A2 Â&#x2C6;
2!, -m
Prem was an hour late [because he missed the train] I borrowed your lawn mower, [since you weren't using it] [as I don't know the way], I'll take a taxi
Result PQ:V88 T
The kitchen was flooded, [so we had to go to a restaurant] I've forgotten my password, [so I can't read my email]
Comparative PQ: 7O Q7 Q
This is a lot more difficult [than I expected] She earns as much money [as I do] I think Beijing is less crowded [than it used to be]
N 8H H J2 Q28: O N? : O P7 H R N? N G9? 79R H 2 9 F98 98 F EF VH subordinate clause G9? 7 H 26 26 7N JG3? 6 O P7 26 T 98 98 2 9 73H 26 while JG3? 6 9 ? temporal clause( 6 8 N6 7 O W)H 73H I read the newspaper [while I was waiting] f H 9 E T T [5 P F ]
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9 E concessive clause (Q 2 5 N ? ) 73H [while I don't agree with her], I can understand her viewpoint. [G 5 P Ff H79R N? Q7 ] f R75? GX2 2 N79R 5 7 G 8 P F28? 28K 26 since J N 7 8 73H I've known him [since he was a child] f W?X Q75 [ I H75 7OU 7NR ] I N 79 :V8 73H I borrowed your lawn mower, [since you weren't using it] f E 72 EF N9 ? 5 2: [7T P2: HG3? ] > # *' , ? >92m pa +" >A '! ? 2 = 2m z> ! : 3 +" +_ ' <>4 , p, A subordinate clause p* ,m A `_ a 3?.
156
# *' , ? >9 a 30- 2m pa +" , subordinate clause p, > , ? Â&#x192; 9 ? @ ,m > >*?aq a 30- +_ 9= # 2 , A -a 3?. >*
1. [after visiting Bangkok], the circus moved on to Macau.
comparative concessive conditional reason result temporal
2. We had no electricity during the storm, [so we had to use candles]
comparative concessive conditional reason result temporal
3. [as long as you're over 18], you can join the army
comparative concessive conditional reason
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result temporal 4. [as he doesn't drive], David always travels by train
comparative concessive conditional reason result temporal
5. Amy reached the house [just as it started to snow]
comparative concessive conditional reason result temporal
158
+_' ' a 30-
2 H G9 H 75? GX H O P 27OU 7 E 9 H 9 KF dKF 7 F ? N? 75 G9 H 8PXQ ? N? 72 EF 9 9 T 2 (full stop 9 E period) 72 EF 9 26 J (question mark) 9 E 72 EF 9 : (exclamation mark) H F 7OU G3?G 75 G9?26 Q H O P 27OU 9 H (unit) dKF N o2 2 N F QW p ? H 2 9 5 o2 2 N F QW p 7 R H J Q G9?75? GX N? H 3 N7X H 2E P XP7OU O P 3 9 G9?26 X6 N2 26 H O P 2 G 73 2 ? 86 N Q26 G P7OU unit FO P QN? clause 9 KF clause 9 E H 26 X6 N2 N 8H H H O I I 9 N8? H7OU O P 2 I I 1] Prem likes football. [2] You can borrow my pen if you need one. [3] Prem likes football and tony likes chess. O P 2 F [1] 7OU O P 27N F (simple sentence) 8H 2E O P QN? clause 7T 9 KF clause O P 2 F [2] O P QN? matrix clause 2E you can borrow my pen if you need one, 8P subordinate clause 2E if you need one. O P 273H I 7 H O P 2V (complex sentence) dKF 9 JK O P 2 FO P QN? 9 KF subordinate clause 7OU H ?
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O P 2 F [3] O P QN? clause X6 clause dKF O P N28? dKF 7 H O P 2 (compound sentence) N? Q : 8PO P N28? O P 2 J 2 N? H HX6 N HG : 7 J 6 72 P9 7OU 9 KF 9 E H 9 KF clause 7 # *' , ? >9 9 ? @ ,m a 30- m +"?aq a 30- a 3?. >* 1. We took a taxi home after the concert.
simple complex compound
2. The policeman was not impressed by his alibi.
simple complex compound
3. As soon as I heard the news, I rushed straight to the police.
simple complex compound
4. Amy watches football on television,
160
simple
but she never goes to a game.
complex compound
5. If you give your details to our secretary, we will contact you when we have a vacancy.
simple complex compound
4 * a 30- 2 A +_ 7 JX6 O P 2 8 P G3? F7 N? Q 8? O P 2 QH 7OU 4 O P7 F 6 2 2E â&#x20AC;˘ â&#x20AC;˘ â&#x20AC;˘ â&#x20AC;˘
Declarative Interrogative Imperative Exclamative
(Q 78H ) (26 J ) (26 F ) ( : )
a 30- ? m (declarative sentences) G3?G EF 5? 2 9 E 7OU Q 5? 2 73H David plays the piano. 7N N78H 7O[ I hope you can come tomorrow. f 9 H 2: 2 N?G T :H I We've forgotten the milk. 7 8E O78
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a 30- ? m 7OU O P 2 F N 8P H F :N a 30- = < (interrogative sentences) G3?G J 26 J 73H Is this your book? 9 E I7OU 5 2: 9 E 7O8H Did you receive my message? 2: N? Q5? 2 5 f 9 E 7O8H Have you found a new job yet? 2: 9 G9 H N?9 E H 5? ? 7OU O P 2 yes/no interrogatives 7 EF X ? N? Q 26 Q H yes 9 E no a 30- = < ?Â&#x2C6;@_ ? @ (alternative interrogatives) 7OU O P 2 26 J F7 G9? J78E Q N? 9 E H 26 Q 73H Should I telephone you or send an email? f 2 9 2: 9 E H 5? 2 7 8 N 8HP Do you want tea, coffee, or espresso? 2: ? Q3 Â&#x2026; 9 E 7 7O dN a 30- = < !" # yes/no interrogatives 8P alternative interrogatives G3? 3H (auxiliary verb) 6 ?5? 9 ? G 5? wh- interrogatives G3? 26 wh- 6 ?5? 9 ? 8P ? 26 Q QQ7OÂ&#x201E;N ? (open-ended response) 73H What happened? Where do you work? Who won the cup final in 1997? G2 3 P 5H 5 2 T Â&#x2026; 8G O[ 1997
162
7 N P 5KI 2: 6 F 9
!" = < 9 + ?2 tag p, +_ -a 30- ? m David plays the piano, doesn't he? 7N N78H 7O[ G3H 9 We've forgotten the milk, haven't we? 7 8E G3H 9 There's a big match tonight, isn't there? XP 5H 5 2WH 6 2 G 2E I G3H 9 dKF W?X H 7OU tag questions O P 2O P QN? main verb 9 E auxiliary verb N? pronoun 9 E existential there a 30- = '!_ (imperative sentences) G3?G 26 F 9 E Q G9? 6 73H Leave your coat in the hall.
7 EI 28: 5 2: ?G 9?
Give me your phone number.
G9?9 785 T 5 2: ? Qf N?
Don't shut the door
H OÂ&#x201E;NO P W
Stop!
9 :N !" ? ?2 tag questions p, +_2 - a 30- = '!_ 73H
Leave your coat in the hall, will you? 7 EI 28: 5 2: ?G 9? N? 9 Write soon, won't you? 75 XN9 JK f G 7 R S I N? 9 G O P 226 F I 98 (main verb) WHG WOTEI O P 298 (matrix clause) ? PQ: 85 O P 27
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a 30- (exclamative sentences) G3?G N : 73H What a stupid man he is! 75 3H 7OU 3 F H758 P 73H I How wonderful you look! 2: 3H NWN S78 O P 2 I 4 O P7 WO 2 ? O P 2 H 7 XP 7 W? G H 98 X I 6 9 Q I 7 XP3 IG9?79R H 2 T QQ9 KF H 9 KF P9 H W O O P 2 Q 9 ? F 7 3 5 7 (discourse function) I H 2 X6 7OU 73H O P 2 H O I 7OU WOO P 2Q 78H You need some help. 2: ? 2 3H 798E HJ? 9 O P 2 ITWNN? 7 W RXP 8 7OU O P 2 26 J 73H You need some help? 2: ? 2 3H 798E Q? 9 E 7O8H G 5? 26 J 73 9 (rhetorical questions) dKF WO7OU O P 226 J H2 9 7OU 7T Q 78H 73H Who cares? ( = I don't care = f H GX)
164
+_' '+_
3*! 4!" p,- : = , + a 30- # 3a 3026 8 :O P 2 8PO P 2 O P QN? F F7 H PN Q3 I (grammatical hierarchy) 7 J N 73 QQ V N? N I a 30- (sentence) Zg fP^[aVQ `U d `geP ffVS ...... a 30- (clause) Zg fP^[aVQ `U d `geP ffVS ...... , + (phrase) Zg fP^[aVQ `U d `geP ffVS ...... = (word) a 30- 7OU X:N W :NG 86 N Q5 I (hierarchy) XK 7OU 9 H FG9 H F :N G 5 P F O8 :NN? 9 KF 5 86 N Q5 I 26 (word) WH F86 N Q F6 :N G PN Q a 30- 8P, + X:N F2 Q 2 O P7NR 2E 1. G 86 N Q5 I ? H a 30- XP WHG PN Q F W H , + J 6 a 30- OG3?G , + N? 73H F7 N?79R 8? 2E The man who lives beside us is ill. 3 2 F WHQ? J NX 7 OOÂ&#x2030; X H XP79R H 2: :O P 2 (relative clause) 2E who lives beside us WHG np the man who lives beside us.
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2. 7 N? Q 8? H 7 JG3? a 30- ?G a 30 8P , + JG3? ?G , + N? I7 J Q 86 N Q5 I (grammatical hierarchy) N G3?O P 2 H O I My brother won the lottery. 7TEF G3?7OU G Q 86 N Q5 I 78RQ FT T QQ KQ F 7 G3? 5? Q T H F 6 2 H ? 9 KF O P 7OU FXP Q 8POÂ&#x2039; 9 F : 5KI 7 EF O P 2 2 d Q d? 5KI N? 79 : I VW?73 F 3 N? XK 78E FXPG3? F 79R 8P75? GX N? H 5KI 2E N P WO ? ? (tree diagram)
a# # 3A +_ G H 5 7 G3? 26 H oformp9 E o W O QQp 2H 5? QH X I7 G3? oformp 7OU 9 KF G 7 M F7 G3?G X6 2 H P9 H owordp Q oclausep XP79R N? H oformp 9 E oshapep 5 word XP 7OU H FN FXP 6 O WH W?3 N5 26 (word class) 7 EF 7 T X phrase 73H 7N 7 R ? GX form 5 73H 7N N? 8H 8? H phrase X WOTEI (basic form) 2E H 6 H 9 8P H ? (pre-head string - head - post-head string) 8P ? F :N 7 N? O P7 5 clause N T X X form (finite 9 E nonfinite) 5 98 (main verb) G H S F 8H 7 N? 6 72 P9 WO 9 E formal analysis F 7 form N G9?7 N? Q H F GN F 9 KF 7OU H 8H 2E WO H
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9 E 8 P 8P 2 ? 5 7OU H 7 EF 7 Q H the old man 7OU np 9 E the old man bought a newspaper 7OU finite clause F 2E F 7 N? 6 72 P9 WO (formal analysis) X I7 JT X F H O P Q (constituents) 8H 2E phrases 8P clauses dKF 7OU X : 9 KF N? 7 J X Q 9 ? F9 E Q Q (functions) F phrases 8P clauses N? N G 2 ? FG9 H H dKF JW ?G 2 ? I a 3( # 3'm, - F 6 9 ? F 98 F7 2:? 72 F :N 2E a 3( (subject) 2 9 5 26 T 7 J2 N N? H subject 7OU 9 H F N o P 6 p (action) FQ G9?7 QX verb 5 O P 2 73H [1] Victor plays the piano [2] The police interviewed all the witnesses G O P 2 [1] subject 2E victor N P 6 2E 78H 7O[ G O P 2 [2] subject 2E the police N P 6 2E Q T X 5? 2 798H I 9 2 H 7 JQH 3 I subject N?N? G3? I 26 J QQ wh-question 73H [1] Victor plays the piano Q. Who plays the piano? A. Victor ( = subject) [2] The police interviewed all the witnesses Linguistic Grammar Of English
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Q. Who interviewed all the witnesses? A. The police (= subject) N? QH 3 I subject XP79R N? H H F798E 5 O P 2XP7OU H F Q 7 H subject P 6 P 9 E N? P 6 P O 8? 73H G O P 2 [1]plays the piano Q 7 G9? Q H Victor 6 P 7 7 H H 5 O P (predicate) 5 O P 2 G O P 2 [2] predicate 2E interviewed all the witnesses. 5? 8H I O P QN? H O P 27T F 7 N subject 8P predicate. a 3(
H 5 O P
Subject
Predicate
The lion
roared
He
writes well
She
enjoys going to the cinema
The girl in the blue dress arrived ate G H8P H 5? ? subject N P 6 F N?Q ?G predicate H R XP79R N? H 2 OÂ&#x2039; 9 G FXPG9?26 X6 N2 verb H 7OU 26 F o N P 6 p 8PN? 79 :V87N R 2 OÂ&#x2039; 9 G FXPG9?26 X6 N2 subject H 7OU oVW? P 6 p 73H subject G O P 2 John seems unhappy. 2E John H2H 5? F7 F7 XPTWN H 75 6 8 N P 6 N? 79 : I7 7 XK X6 7OU ? G9?26 X6 N2 26 subject G9? 3 N7X H I fP I G 9 ? J N O7 XP7 W?7 F Q2: 8 P5 subject
168
! : 3 a 3( O P 98 (grammatical subject) 2: 8 P98 O P N I 1. ' ! 2= #A m a 3( - - G O P 2Q 78H (declarative sentence), O P G3? ?9 ? (verb): a 30- ? m : Dara is unwell. 7 EF 7O8 F 7OU O P 226 J QQ yes/no I O P 8P XP ? 8 Q F J? 3H (auxiliary verb) N? O P XP 8 Q F Q 3H : a 30- ? m : Jim has left already. a 30- = < : Has jim left already? G a 30- = < I O P 2 ? F5? 9 ? 98 (main verb) H W H 98 3H 73H 9 I JK O P 226 J F 3H do N? 73H a 30- ? m : Jim left early. a 30- = < : Did Jim leave early? ' ! 2= #A m a 3( - - (subject-verb inversion) X7OU F H 73EF JE N? F :N G QH 3 IO P 5 O P 2
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2. 2= #A m a 3( G a 30- ? m I O P 7OU H O P Q (first constituent) 73H Jim was in bed. X WHQ 7 Prem arrived too late for the party. 7O JK 78 I 3? 7 O The Mayor of Korat attended the banquet. 7 7 E 2 3 N? H 78 I N? We made a donation to charity. 7 6 Q X 27TEF : 8 I I 5? 7 ? WHQ? 73H Yesterday the theatre was closed. 7 EF I 8P2 OÂ&#x201E;N G O P 2N 8H H O P Q 2E 7 yesterday H HG3H7OU O P 5 O P 2 5 G9? 7 H the theatre HG3H yesterday F 8 Q Q G O P 226 J 73H a 30- ? m : Yesterday the theatre was closed. a 30- = < : Yesterday was the theatre closed?
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N I O P G O P 2 I2E the theatre ? H XP HG3H H 5 O P 2 R 3. , ' * ' ! 3A,m a 3( ! - , ' * ' ! 3A,m a 3( ! - (subject-verb agreement 9 E concord) 9 JK N28? 73 7 TX 9 E T9WTX
P9 H O P 8P F 73H a 3( ? 9 : The dog howls all night. : 59 8 N I 2E a 3( A 9 : The dogs howl all night. T : 5 T 9 8 N2E I 5? X6 N F 6 2 WH 2 O P F7 F Q subject-verb agreement O P agreement XPG3?7 EF verb WHG WOOÂ&#x2039;XX:Q (present tense) 6 9 Q WO N (past tense) I H agreement P9 H O P 8P H 79R N?3 N 73H The dog howled all night. The dogs howled all night. O P F agreement XPG3?7 EF QO P Q: : F 7 H I I I H 2 H P9 H O P Q: : F9 KF 7 TX 8PT9WTX 7OU ? 73H I howl all night. We howl all night.
f ? P 8 N2E T 7 ? P 8 N I 2E
2 N28? 73 2 N (notional agreement) 5 26 Q 26 X7OU N? I 7 TX 8PT9WTX 73H The government is considering the proposal. The government are considering the proposal. Linguistic Grammar Of English
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Q 8 6 8 T X 5? 7 G F I WO5 H N? 6 9 N N WO5 O P H 6 9 N N F7 2 O P G O P 2 the government is... O P JW 2 G9?7OU 9 H 9 KF XK ? WO7 TX G O P 2 the government are... O P JW 2 G 2 9 5 T9WT X 7 EF X T Q 8:H 2 F 8 P7fT P 8:H 9 KF N I XK WHG WOT9WTX 2E are 4. = '
= A +_ ?aq a 3( 26 T (pronouns) 2E I, he/she/it, we, they 6 9 ? F 7OU O P 5 O P 2 dKF 5? Q me, him/her, us, them 73H I left early. *me left early. He left early. *him left early. We left early. *us left early. They left early. *them left early. T you J 6 9 ? F7OU subject N?N? 73H You left early. H H N? 6 9 ? F I7 G O P 2 H H O I subject 2E Tom HG3H you Tom likes you.
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'. ?aq a 3( G O P 2 Jim was in bed a 3( 2E np Jim 8H G9?3 N7X F 5KI 2E a 3( N? H np Jim G 5? np Jim 7OU 6 7 N O P G O P 2 I O NX6 ? 7 H np 7OU 7T 26 7 98 (formal term) G 5 P F subject (a 3( ) 7OU 26 7 9 ? F (functional term) Form
Function
WO
9 ? F
Noun phrase Subject 8 O P O P JW 6 G9?75? GX3 N7X 5KI N 8 (np). I I OJK np F T F7OU [1] 785 N (cardinal, numerals) [2], 785 N 86 N Q F (ordinal numerals) [3] 26 98 (head word) 73H [1] [We] decided to have a party. 7 N GX FXPX N 78 I 5KI [2] [One of her contacts lenses] fell on the floor. 2 278 9 KF 5 f 98H 8 Q TEI [3] [The first car to reach Chiang Mai] is the winner. J 2 FXP OJK 73 G9 HXP7OU VW?3 P H R H O P Q EF R J 6 9 ? F7OU O P 5 O P 2 N? N H O I
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a 30- = A +_?aq a 3( a 30- (clauses) J 6 9 ? F7OU O P 5 O P 2 N? 7 EF 6 9 ? FN 8H 7 7 H subject clauses 5? 8H I N H 5 subject clauses O P7 6 2 S a 30- = A +_
> ? @
?aq a 3( Finite that-clause
nominal relative clause
[1] That his theory was flawed soon became obvious.
[2] What I need is a long holiday.
Nonfinite to-infinitive clause
[3] To become an opera singer takes years of training
-ing clause
[4] Being the chairman is a huge responsibility
5 G9? 7 H subject clauses Q O P (subject) G O P 25 WH 8? G O P 2 [1] subject clause that his theory was flawed, O P WH 8? 2E his theory G 8 P28? G O P 2 [2], O P 5 what I need 2E I
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G Q N nonfinite clauses 7T to-infinitive clauses 8P -ing participle clauses 7 H I F J 6 9 ? FO P 5 O P 2 N? 86 T 7fT P infinitive clauses 8P -ed participle clauses H J 6 9 ? F I N? X H 5? Q 2E O P 2 [3] 8P [4] I nonfinite subject clauses H O P WHG O P 2 ? H 9 XP 6 G9? R J 6 N? 73H [3a] for Pranee to become an opera singer would take years of training. [4a] Decha being the chairman has meant more work for all of us. , + = A +_?aq a 3( JTQ79R N? H F , + = A +_?aq a 3( 73H After nine is a good time to ring. , + G P F7OU a 3( (subject) 7OU 8H JK 7 8 9 E TEI F a 3( > # mp,- O P G H (grammatical subject) Q F7 EF 7 79R 2 I XP W? K H FXP 7 N? 73H G O P 2 H O I There is a fly in my soup. 8 WHG d:O N Q X6 a 3( F H 73EF JE N? F :N 2E 8 Q F P9 H O P Q (subject-verb inversion) N I 7 XP 8 G3? I Q O P 2 H O I a 30- ? m : There is a fly in my soup. a 30- = < : Is there a fly in my soup? Linguistic Grammar Of English
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N Q 8 Q F N G9?79R H a 3( 2E there H 2 XPX6 N? H F7OU H 5 there F N 2 WH (existential there) 8PO P 2dKF O P WH98 2E O P 2 F7 H O P 2 N 2 WH (existential sentence) 5 G9? N8 6 N Q F28? S G O P 2 H O I It is raining. N Q 8 Q F (inversion test) N G9?79R H O P 2E it a 30- ? m : It is raining. a 3 = < : Is it raining? H O P 2 I 3 N I3 IG9?79R H 26 X6 N 2 73 2 N (notional definition) 5 O P 7OU H N? 2 W? K 7 H JTWN N? H there 8P it 6 8 o N P 6 p H GN H 9 KF G O P 2 H 6 8 6 9 ? F G PO P G 9 ? I 7 N? Q H 9 ? F 5 O P J79R N?X WO QQ H S G 5? WO H S 73H np, clause, pp 8P EF S R J 6 9 ? F EF SG O P 2 N?73H # *' , ? >9 9
3 a 3( (subject) > a 30- 2m pa +" 0*- +*'! >2 1. Your new neighbours are very noisy. 2. Drinking beer is not permitted. 3. Without thinking, the professor stepped off the pavement. 4. To ensure confidentiality, we will conceal your name and address. 5. There was a storm last night.
176
. -> 'm, - -a 3( I 7 XP T X H G O P (predicate) 8P 6 9 N 9 ? FG9? Q H O P Q5 2 X6 N? H predicate 2E : F : H 5 O P 2 7 ? subject N I G O P 2 Victor plays the piano, predicate R 2E plays the piano dKF O P QN? verb phrase N F7 J QH 7OU H O P Q N? 2 H 2E [plays] [the piano] G 3 , 7 8H JK verb H 7OU predicator 7T P 9 ? F E 5 (predicate) 9 E PQ: (state) P Q H 7 F QO P 5 G9? 7 H predicator I 7OU 26 7 73 9 ? F (functional term) G 5 P F verb 7OU 26 7 73 3 (formal term ) Form
Function
WO
9 ? F
Verb
Predicator 5 O P
H R 7 EF X predicator N? H verb F 7 7 XK XP 2 G3? 26 overbp F7 2:? H O ? HG F7 K 7 F Q7 EF 9 ? F5
2
G O P 2 Victor plays the piano, I np the piano 7OU F Q o P 6 p N? JW 78H N victor dKF 7OU O P 7 7 H O P Q I H 7OU (direct object) H O I2E H 7T F 7 5
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We bought a new computer. 7 dEI 2 T 7 72 EF G9 H I used to ride a motorbike. f 72 5 F JX 8? The police interviewed all the witnesses. 6 X Q T : 2 7 J PQ: N?N? G3? J G2 (who) 9 E P (what) F N? QV8 P QX O P 73H We bought a new computer. Q. What did we buy? A. A new computer ( = ) N O XPG3? ? F5? 98 73H 7N Q FO P F G3? ?5? 9 ? N I G O P 2Q 78H (declarative) N O WO QQ N I a 3( Â? - --
2
Subject -- verb -- direct object H O I N H WO QQ7T F 7 Subject
Verb
Direct object
O P
The Thai tourists
visited
the old temple
He
sent
a postcard
The American detectives examined the scene of the crime
178
'. ?aq
2
2
(direct object) G3? np G 6 9 ? F FO eG H 5? ? H R 9 ? FN 8H JG3? :O P 2 (clause) 7OU QH Q R N? H O I N G9?79R H 5 :O P 2 F 6 9 ? F 7OU
2
:O P 2 F 6 9 ? F7OU > ? @
2
Finite That-clause Nominal relative clause
[1] He thought that he had a perfect alibi. [2] The officer described what he saw through the keyhole.
Nonfinite To-infinitive clause
[3] The dog wants to play in the garden.
Bare infinitive clause
[4] She made the lecturer laugh.
-ing clause
[5] Surapong loves playing football.
-ed clause
[6] I'm having my house painted.
a 3( # 3
a 30-
2 , 9 # 3a 30-
, 9 FN G G3?7O Q7 Q P9 H a 3( # 3
2
R2E 7 H 26 798H I T H G O P 2
2 , 9 # 3a 30
, 9 5 G9?T X O P 2
2 , 9 (active) H O I Linguistic Grammar Of English
179
O P 2
2 , 9 : Fire destroyed the palace. X O P 2 I O P 2E Fire 8P 2E the palace I 7 8 7O8 F O P 2 IG9?7OU O P 2
, 9 (passive) O P 2
, 9 : The palace was destroyed by fire. 7O8 F O P 2X O P 2
2 , 9 (active) 7OU O P 2
, 9 (passive) XP V8 N I 1. 2E the palace 8 7OU O P 2. O P 2E fire 8 7OU H 9 KF 5 Q: TQ 8 2E # *' , ? >9 9
3
2
(direct object) > a 30- 2m pa +" 0*- +*?' >2 1. Our programmer is testing his new software. 2. He suddenly realised that someone was listening. 3. Amy has decided to go to university. 4. They can't read what you've written. 5. This involves clicking on the screen.
180
Q 26 G3? Q 2 73H We gave [John] [a present] X O P 2N 8H np 2E a present Q " P 6 " (5 5 2E F F JW QG9?) N I a present XK 7OU direct object ( ) 7 7 np john H 7OU indirect object ( ) G3? H Q direct object 8P G3? ? Oa `Ua WO QQ7fT PN I a 3( Â? - Â?
--
2
Subject -- verb -- indirect object -- direct object G 5? 8H I N H O P 2 F 2
2
Tell
me
a story
He showed
us
his war medals
We bought
David
a birthday cake
Can you lend your colleague a pen?
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F 8P I W?X G ditransitive verbs 6 9 Q F 7T I 7 H monotransitive verbs 26 tell 7OU N? I ditransitive verb 8P monotransitive 73H Ditransitive
Dara told the children a story
Monotransitive Dara told
a story
F7 Q 8? H G3?N? Q H R 7 EF G3? Q Q XG3? N? N 86 T 73H Dara told the children. ? H 7 XP JX N QQ7OU N?G N 8H 73H Dara told the children the news. = A +_
N O G3? 8 6 9 ? F dKF 7OU 9 ? F7 fT P5 T G F7OU 73H me, him, us, 8P them N F O H F :O P 2XP 6 9 ? F7OU 73H Dara told whoever saw her to report to the police. = - - ,
182
H H S5 O P 2 EF 2 H F GN F 9 KF 7 N5KI H 7 EF 9 E F 9 73H He ate his meal quickly. (how) 75 QO P 9 H N7 R (how) Thaksin gave blood last week. (when) Q X 278E N7 EF ON 9 H (when) Suda went to school in New York. (where) :N O7 F 7 G 2 (where) X H XP79R N? H H O P Q F NN7NH WH 2E 26 5 (adjuncts) G H 5 ? O P 2 I adjuncts 7OU H O P Q F 7 J78E G3?9 E H R N? 7T P H 8P ? H 6 G3? O P 2 R J 2 QW WH N? 73H He ate his meal quickly ~He ate his meal. Thaksin gave blood last week ~Thaksin gave blood. Suda went to school in New York ~Suda went to school. H O P Q5 O P 298 O P7 F J 6 9 ? F 7 OU adjuncts N? N H H O I = A +_ = - - , 9 43C 9: 3452DE9FC 6 F
Thaksin gave blood last week. Next summer, we're going to USA.
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They've agreed to meet the day after tomorrow. 8 F 6 9 ? F7OU = - - , 7OU 8H JK 7 EF 7 8 N F 7 ?G H - , ?%: , + = A +_?aq = - - , They ate their meal too quickly . She walked very gracefully down the steps. Suddenly, the door opened.
, + = A +_?aq = - - , Ladda went to school in Bangkok. I work late on Mondays. After work, I go to a local restaurant. , + = A +_?aq = - - , 8H JK 7 EF 7 8 9 E J F 8H 2E Q G9?7 Q H Q F Q H 7 N5KI 7 EF 9 E F 9
184
a 30- = A +_?aq = - - , a 30- J 6 9 ? F7OU = - - , N? 7 XP7 F T X F H 5 a 30- 73H a 30- J 6 9 ? F > ? @ 7OU = - - , Finite PQ: 8
While we were crossing the park, we heard a loud explosion. I was late for the interview because the train broke down. If you want tickets for the concert, you have to apply early. My car broke down, so I had to walk.
Nonfinite H PQ: 8 To-infinitive clause Bare infinitive clause -ing clause -ed clause Small clause
To open the window, you have to climb a ladder. Rather than leave the child alone, I brought him to work with me. Being a qualified plumber, Paul had no difficulty in finding the leak. Left to himself, he usually gets the
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185
job done quickly. His face red with rage, John stormed out of the room. XP 7 N? H :O P 2 798H I N G9?79R 5 Q75 2 9 dKF 7 N? Q 8? H 9 ? I G : H 5 G9? 7 N? H 26 5 2 N G9?79R I 7 EI 9 9 E JG H7T F 7 N? 8PXP78E G H9 E HG H R N? J? 9 8P ? :O P 2 F 2 WH R 2 QW G 73 WOO P 2 WH
# *' , ? >9 9 9 A +_ p,- (grammatical functions) = 2m pa +" subject predicate predicator direct object indirect object adjunct 0*- 3 A +_ m = +_ - m> , ? Â&#x192; #2m 3a 30- 2m pa +" 1. Recently, [finding a job] has become very difficult.
subject predicate predicator direct object indirect object adjunct
186
2. Amy sings [very sweetly].
subject predicate predicator direct object indirect object adjunct
3. I've left [my keys] in the car.
subject predicate predicator direct object indirect object adjunct
4. Pongpat promised [me] that he'd send a postcard.
subject predicate predicator direct object indirect object adjunct
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5. Playing football [is his only pastime].
subject predicate predicator direct object indirect object adjunct
aa 30- 2 A +_> a 307TEF 7OU : O 7 EI 9 F 7 N? 7 W? 8? X I 7 XP 7 W? WO QQO P 2 QQ7fT P N T X G H5 9 ? F N I 7 XP 6 :O G H 5 7 EI 9 I N T X WO QQO P 2 QQ H7fT PG J N O F7 N? Q 8? H O P XP7OU H O P Q G O P 2 8P N? N I
a# +_A `_
O P
Sakura
sings
Sangchan cries
188
The dog
barked
Suksan
yawned
G WO QQ I H 98 dKF 7 7 H ointransitive verbp ( F H ) 9 7OU 7N F (monotransitive) ? 98 N H O I
a# +_'
a 3(
Dara
sings ballads
The teacher wants to retire The jury
found the defendant guilty
G WO QQ Q N? 2 (ditransitive) I 26 XP 8P 98 86 N Q N H O I
a# +_' a 3(
The old man
gave the children some money
My uncle
sent
me
The detectives asked Amy
a present lots of questions
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26 5 2 (adjuncts) 7OU 5 Q75 ? O P 2 F H 6 2
G H F798E EF SG O P 2 JG3? ? N? I F ? O P 2 8P F ? O P 2 8P JG3? N? Q I WO QQ F 8H 8? 5? ?
a# +_'+_ 1 Usually
Dara
2 Unfortunately
the wants teacher
3 At the start of the trial
the judge
sings
in the bath to retire
this year
showed the the in a private jury photographs chamber
WO QQ F F7OU WO QQ F7 NX 8 P F 6 2 5 I WO QQ 8? 7T F 26 5 2 75? O N G H 78RQ ? 7TE F N H J 6 G3? N?9 E XP8P ? H 6 G3? R N? 9 TWNX S 8? 7 R73H 7N 2E J8P ? N? 7T PX6 7OU ? G3?7 EF 7OU 7OU N?7T 7N (monotransitive) 8P N? 2 (ditransitive) 7 H I N H 2 8P 3 5? ?
190
# *' , ? >9 9 9! a m 30- ! a# a 30- *! 2m pa +"
1. The wall collapsed. a. Subject -- verb b. Subject -- verb -- direct object c. Subject -- verb -- indirect object -- direct object d. (Adjunct) -- subject -- verb -- direct object e. (Adjunct) -- subject -- verb -- (adjunct) 2. During the great tsunami in Japan, many people lost their homes. a. Subject -- verb b. Subject -- verb -- direct object c. Subject -- verb -- indirect object -- direct object d. (Adjunct) -- subject -- verb -- direct object e. (Adjunct) -- subject -- verb -- (adjunct) 3. I promised the children a trip to the Korat zoo a. Subject -- verb b. Subject -- verb -- direct object c. Subject -- verb -- indirect object -- direct object d. (Adjunct) -- subject -- verb -- direct object e. (Adjunct) -- subject -- verb -- (adjunct)
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4. When he was 12, Dara moved to bangkok a. Subject -- verb b. Subject -- verb -- direct object c. Subject -- verb -- indirect object -- direct object d. (Adjunct) -- subject -- verb -- direct object e. (Adjunct) -- subject -- verb -- (adjunct) 5. Prem hired a taxi. a. Subject -- verb b. Subject -- verb -- direct object c. Subject -- verb -- indirect object -- direct object d. (Adjunct) -- subject -- verb -- direct object e. (Adjunct) -- subject -- verb -- (adjunct)
aa 30- ?%: WO QQO P 2 F7 N? Q G H H 9 ? I N G9?79R WO QQ 7fT P N F O (typical 9 E canonical) H7 JTQ79R O P 2 F 8 P H75? Q WO QQ798H I N? N H H O I - -2= #A m a 3( Q 2 I O P JW ? O ? F ? O P 2 (extraposition) 73H Inside the house were three detectives. G Q? EQ 2
192
More important is the question of compensation. F F 6 2 F H 2E 26 J 7 F Q2H 3N73 X H 7OU 86 N Q5 O P 2Q 78H N HJW ? 6 9 H 7TEF V8 G3? 6 G H N H O I a 3( JW ?98 N I XK 7 H JW ? 6 9 H (extraposed) 5 G9?7O Q7 QO P 2 798H I QO P 2 F7OU WO QQ N In first place is red rum. ~Red rum is in first place. Inside the house were two detectives.
~Two detectives were inside the house.
More important is the question of compensation.
~The question of compensation is more important.
a 3( < , p, > 2= #A m +_p ma 2 # 3a 30- + anticipation it = A It is a good idea to book early. 7OU 2 2 N FN F7 XP 6 ( F F ) H7 F It is not surprising that he failed his exams H H O8 GX78 F75 Q G WO QQ7fT P 2 ? O P 2 QQ I XNW7 F 7 ? G 73 6 To book early is a good idea. That he failed his exams is not surprising.
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? 6 9 H O P (extraposition) I HG3H 6 G3?N? 79 :V8 7 F Q 6 7 O J 6 G3?G O P 273 T P 9 E 5? VW T (obligation) N? N H H O I It seems that he'll be late ~*that he'll be late again again seems It turned out that his secretary had stolen the money
~*that his secretary had stolen the money turned out
R73H J 6 ? F 6 9 H HO N? 7 2 X6 N? H 6 9 H O G3? ?5? 98 (G WO QQ F ) H R 7 EF G3? it 7OU 6 (anticipatory it) 8? RXPJW 6 O ?G 6 9 H H O 73H He made it very clear that he would not be coming back. 8P73H WO QQN I 7N (canonical pattern) RNWXP 7 F 7 ? T G 73 6 73H *he made that he would not be coming back very clear.
a 30- ?' ?%: G O P 2Q 78H 73H Dara studied English at Oxford J 7O8 F WOO P 2G9 H N?N I It was Dara who studied English at Oxford.
194
O P 2G 8 P73H I7 H a 30- ?' ?%: (cleft sentence) 7T PO P 298 JW QH 7OU H 2E it was Dara 8P who studied English at Oxford a 30- ?' ?%: X:N F H GX F H O P Q H 9 KF 5 O P 2 98 ?98 it was (9 E it is) I7 XP G9?2 GX FO P 2E Dara 8P 2E English It was English that Dara studied at Oxford. 9 E G9?2 GX F 26 5 2 2E at oxford. It was at Oxford that Dara studied English.
N I a 30- ?' ?%:XK XP WON I It + be + focus + clause A +_> , + 9 ? F73 2 ? O P 2 F7 N? QX 7 EI 9 G H FVH 2E O P (subject), (object), H 5 O P (predicate), 26 5 2 (adjunct) 7OU ? 8? H7OU 9 ? FG O P 2 9 E :O P 2 73H X F7 N? Q 8? H O P 2 H G9 H J QH N?7OU H O P Q F 6 2 2 H 2E a 3( # 3'm, - -a 3( a 3(
'm, - -a 3(
[1] The lion
roared
[2] He
writes well
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195
[3] She
enjoys going to the cinema
[4] The girl in the blue dress arrived late G H 5 H 5 O P R73H H O P Q H S 6 9 ? F 98 98 8H 2E G O P 2 [3] going to the cinema 6 9 ? F7OU G 5 P FO P 2 [4] late 6 9 ? F7OU 26 5 2 G H8P 5 P I 7 6 8 8H JK 9 ? F F H O P Q798H IG O P 2 9 E :O P 2 7 J 6 9 N9 ? FG9? H H O P Q H S5 8 N? 2 XPX6 N? H 8 : O P7 2 ? N F O N I (2!, - - +_ m ) Â? = A ! Â? (2!, - - +_ +A ! ) (pre-head string) --- head --- (post-head string) H O P Q F WHG 78RQ X 9 E H R N?
= A @ , +?' , 5 G9?T X - , + F WHG 78RQ G O P 2 H O I Victor [vp plays the piano] G H 3 , 7 J 72 P9 - , + (vp) IN? G3? 2 ? 3 H F7 2:? 72 N 2E
196
Pre-head string 2!, - - +_ m --
Head
Post-head string
= A ! 2!, - - +_ +A !
plays
the piano
I 7 T X 9 ? F5 H8P H NW 2 X 8? 7 N? Q9 ? F5 I 3 H 8? 8H 2E 26 plays 6 9 ? F7OU 26 98 (head) 5 8 (vp) H post-head string 2E the piano XP79R N? H 3H 6 G9? 2 9 5 26 98 2E plays QW F 5KI 26 T FQH Q 9 ? F7 8H JK 8:H 26 (string) H 7OU = A @ , +?' , (complement) 5 26 98 H O I7OU H 7T F 7 Pre-head string 2!, - - +_ m
Head = A !
Complement = A @ , +?' ,
Never
needs
money
--
eat
vegetables
Not
say
what he is doing
G H8P = A @ , +?' , 3H G9?2 9 5 = A ! QW F 5KI N I XK 7 N 2 73EF 73 ? O P 2 P9 H 8:H 26 N 8H
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7 EF JK I X 5? H 6 7 XK HTWN H S H 2!, - +_ +A ! (post thead strings) 798H I7OU 6 7 XK ? 6 9 N = A @ , +?' , (complement) 5KI H 8:H 26 F 6 G9?2 9 5 = A ! 2 QW F 5KI I HG3H 7 O 5 G9?8 T X O P 2 H O I She [vp told me] X H 5? 8H 2!, - - +_ +A ! 2E XK N? 2 N I We [vp gave James a present] G F I 2 9 5 26 98 2E gave JW 6 G9? QW N? 8:H 26 I 2E James 8P a present H8P 8:H 26 7OU 26 9 E 8 7 (complement) 5 26 98 dKF R2E gave :N ? 5 G9?T X 8 7 EF 26 98 WHG WO verb be N I Dara [vp is a musician] Amy [vp is clever] Our car [vp is in the car park]
2!, - - +_ +A !
G F I HG3H I 9 E be 7OU F W?X G 3EF 73EF 2 (copular verb) dKF 7OU 26 9 E 8 7 O P7 T 7 F W?X N F O H copular complement 6 9 Q 73EF 2 QQ EF I H
198
G H H O I XPT T 26 98 N? KQ 8PT T 26 9 E 8 7 (complement) N? 7 Our teacher [vp became angry] Your sister [vp seems upset] All the players [vp felt very tired] after the game That [vp sounds great] N I XK 2 3 N7X I H X6 7OU ? 26 H complement 7TEF X6 N5 Q75 2!, - - +_ +A ! I 9 N N H26 K JK O P7 5 G 8 J complement 7 N5KI N? H ? 5 HG : XP 2 73EF 73 WOO P 2 F75? 5R P9 H complement 8P head N I complement XK 7OU H 9 KF 5 vp F ? G3?G 6 G9?2 9 5 head 2 QW
= A @ , +?' , > , + @_ z = A @ , +?' , (complement) JG3? N? Q 8 O P7 EF S N? dKF N? N H 5 H8PO P7 ?G H O I 4 * , +
= A !
Noun phrase (np) Noun
Verb phrase (vp)
Verb
= A @ , + ?' ,
H
Pp
respect for human rights
Clause
the realisation that nothing has changed
Np
David plays the piano
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199
Clause
They realised that nothing has changed She looked at the moon
Pp Adjective phrase (ap)
Adjective
Clause
easy to read
Pp
fond of biscuits
Pp
Luckily for me
Adverb phrase (advp)
Adverb
Prepositional phrase (pp)
Preposition Np Pp
in the room from behind the wall
7 8 J 6 = A @ , +?' , OG3? N?2H 5? X6 N G 2 7OU X G3? 7 8 N H = A @ , +?' , 8 G3? = A @ , +?' , N F7OU (abstract noun) 7OU 26 98 8P XP O P 22WH5 (verbal counterpart) 73H
200
The pursuit of happiness
~We pursue happiness
Their belief in ghosts
~They believe in ghosts
The realisation that nothing has changed
~They realise that nothing has changed
# *' , ? >9 9
3 = A @ , +?' , (complement) > , +2m pa +" 0*- +*?' >2
1. unable to swim 2. the fact that the money was stolen 3. below the horizon 4. learning to drive 5. aware of his potential 'm, - - , > , + (adjuncts in phrases) 26 H 'm , ?2 ?2Â&#x192; (complement) H G 3H 7 OU 26 26 9 KF F G 3? 7 m = +_ A ! = A ! (post-head string) 8H 2E 8:H 26 F H 26 98 H G3H 'm, ?2 ?2Â&#x192; 7 O I I 7T P H 8:H 26 F H 26 98 N? X6 7OU ? G3?G 6 G9?2 9 5 = A ! (head) QW : 2 I 5 G9? T X H H O I [np My sister, who will be twenty next week,] has got a new job. G F I 2: :O P 2 (relative clause) 2E who will be twenty next week 7OU 8:H 26 F H 26 98 H H H H N?7OU 'm, ?2 ?2Â&#x192; G9? 7 H 3H EF 2 7 F Q = A ! 2E sister 5KI 8P J 78E FXPG3?9 E 8P ? R N? G H N 8H 8:H 26 F H 26 98 7OU 'm, - - , (adjunct) EF S F7 N? Q H 9 ? I 2E 3H EF 2 G9? 3 N7X 5KI 8P J78E FXPG3?9 E 8P ? R N? 'm, - - , J 6 G3? N? Q 8 : O P7 8PG3? ? N? I 5? 9 ? 8P5? 98 = A ! 5? 8H I N G9?79R H 5 H8P O P7
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4 * , +
= A !
'm, - 2!, -m
,
Noun phrase (np)
Noun
Pp Ap Clause
the books on the shelf the old lady Cocoa, which is made from cacao beans
Verb phrase (vp)
Verb
Advp
She rapidly lost interest
Pp
He stood on the patio
Advp
It was terribly difficult
Adjective phrase (ap)
Adjective
Prepositional phrase (pp)
Preposition Advp
Completely out of control
?a +- ? +- 'm, - - , (adjunct 8P'm, ?2 ?2Â&#x192; (complement) 'm, ?2 ?2Â&#x192; (complement) H X 'm, - - , > , + (adjunct) N T X X O P7NR F 6 2 2 O P7NR 1. 'm, ?2 ?2Â&#x192; (complement) ?98 26 98 N H F EF 2 F 73H Victor [vp plays [complement the piano] [adjunct beautifully ]] G 5? 8 Q86 N Q R H J 6 N? *Victor [vp plays [adjunct beautifully] [complement the piano]]
202
G 8 PG 8?72 Fond [complement of biscuits] [adjunct with coffee] ~*Fond [adjunct with coffee] [complement of biscuits] N I H 7 7 R (complement) XK 2 T Q 26 98 (head) G 8?3 N H 'm, - - , (adjunct) 2. 'm, - - , (adjunct) ' <, I ! p* (stackable) H ? F :N L 7 JG3? 'm, - - , N?X6 H X6 N 26 8? 26 78H G 9 KF 8 73H 5 G9?T X np H O I 'm, - ,
'm, - - 'm, - - ,
,
'm, - - ,
The book on the shelf by dickens with the red cover that you gave me... G 8 P 5? 8 R 5? X6 NG HX6 G G3? H 7 7 R FX 8? 8 JG3? H 7 7 R N?7T 9 KF H 7 H I 7 ? 8 F N? 2 (ditransitive verb phrase) dKF 7 2 X6 N? H JG3? H 7 7 R N? H 73H We [vp gave [complement james] [complement a present]]
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# *' , ? >9 > , + (np) 2m pa +" + = A * m = (string) ' m = p, > , ? Â&#x192; : The use [of computers] [in schools] 9
3 ,m #2m 3 m = ?aq 'm, ?2 ?2Â&#x192; (complement) A @ 'm, - , (adjunct) Of computers
complement adjunct
In schools
complement adjunct
= ?9 39
= ?9 39 (specifier) 'm, - - , (adjunct) JG3? ? N? I 5? 9 ? 8P5? 98 26 98 (head) G 8 73H G 8 (np) H O I 'm, - - , 2E sudden 7OU H 9 KF 5 F F7 7 H m = +_ m = A ! (pre-head string) 73H Specifier Adjunct
204
Head
Complement
The
Sudden
Realisation
That nothing has changed
G H I7 XP T X 7 F Q9 ? F5 H F798E 5 pre-head string G H 5? ? H Q9 E H H 9 ? F5 the G 8 2E P 7 7 H N 8H G 8 H = ?9 39 (specifier) 5 8 8P = ?9 39 JG3? N? Q 8 O P7 98 S : O P7 N H F7 ?G H O I 4 * , +
= A !
= ?9 39
2!, -m
Noun phrase (np)
Noun
Determiners
The vehicle an objection some people
Verb phrase (vp)
Verb
`negative' elements
Not arrive
Advp
Quite remarkable
Adjective phrase (ap) Adjective
Never plays the piano
Very fond of animals Prepositional phrase (pp)
Preposition Advp
Just across the street
O P7NR 6 2 7 F Q = ?9 39 2E 2 T Q = A ! + 'm, ?2 ?2Â&#x192; 86 N Q26 (sequence) HG3H T 7T 7fT P Q26 98 (head)
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7 H I 73H G 2: T 8 (ap) very fond of animals I = ?9 39 @ very T Q fond of animals, HG3H T H7fT P Q fond 73H Amy is very fond of animals. Q. Amy is very what? A. *Fond A. Fond of animals N I 7 J :O 0
' 3 'm, , + N?N I ( = ?9 39 ) -- [ = A ! -- ('m, ?2 ?2Â&#x192; )]
206
# *' , ? >9 9
3 A +_ m = +_ - m> , ? Â&#x192; #2m 3 , + 2m pa +" 1. Early [editions] of the evening newspapers
specifier head complement adjunct
2. Examined the evidence [with great care]
specifier head complement adjunct
3. [many] examples of Thai sculpture
specifier head complement adjunct
4. An [extraordinary] state of affairs
specifier head complement adjunct
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+_' A , ? 3A ?( 2 A @ ' ( 3 Q I K Q Q 7 9 E P (Theta Â? role/Q-role) G 26 H o Pp 2E T F 6 7 RX H WO 72 P9 73H Agent 9 JK oVW? 6 p 9 E o : Pp G Q 8 8P7 EF TW N JK Theme R 9 JK oVW?JW P 6 p 7 Q N? Q o Pp G Q 8 73H N I 26 H Theta t role G X7 Q N? Q26 H o Pp G Q 8 Theta t role 9 E PG 8P Q 8 I QH 7OU 7 3 N 2E :(1) Agent (
2 ' ( 3) (2) Patient/Theme (
' ( 3) (3) Experiencer (. ,' ( 3) (4) Instrument ( ' ( 3) (5) Recipient/Goal ('! a ' ( 3) (6) Source ( a ' ( 3) (7) Location ( ( ' ( 3) 1. Agent (
2 ' ( 3) Â&#x2C6; 3 = 73H I love her. f 7 98 Q 8 T GN7OU 3EF 5 VW? 6 T I 3EF H : P G F F oI (f )p 7OU VW? 6 2E N I oI (f )p XK 6 9 ? F7OU : P (J? TWNG H 5 (Case) I 2E Nominative Case O I 7 ) 2!, -m @_ z ?4m : - She eats an apple. - He writes a letter.
208
7 Q O7OÂ&#x201E;Â&#x2019;8 75 75 XN9
- They are cleaning the room. T 75 6 8 6 2 P N9? oShe, He,Theyp 8? 7OU oVW? 6 p N I XK X N7OU Agent ( : P) 2. Patient / Theme (
' ( 3) Â&#x2C6; ! Â&#x2C6; 3 = 73H I love a cat. f G O P 2 I oa catp X N7OU Patient 2E VW? QV8 P 6 ( P) VW? 6 S F GN T F7OU 3EF 5 F I X N7OU P 2!, -m @_ z ?4m : - They play football. - She writes a letter. - He hits his friend.
T 7 78H Â&#x2026;: Q 8 98H 75 XN9 75 H 7TEF 75
H FG9? ? football, a letter X N7OU Theme, H ohis friendp 7OU Patient dKF I Theme 8P Patient R2E o Pp G Q 8 F 7 3. Experiencer (. ,' ( 3) Â&#x2C6; m '. ,3 73H He feels cold. 75 W? K 9 oIp Q 5 VW? 6 H o W? K 9 p oIp X N7OU Experiencer 8 P73H IG Q 8 7 H P 2!, -m @_ z ?4m : - He likes that girl. 75 3 QVW?9 2 I - That movie pleases me very much. T 7 EF I 6 G9?f 7T8 N7T8 - This story amuses them so much. 7 EF I 6 G9?T 75 :
Linguistic Grammar Of English
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G F I I, me, them 7OU VW? Q2 W? K H 3 Q (like), 7T8 N7T8 , T GX (please), : (amuses) dKF 7 G Q 8 H o Pp Q P, 2 , 2 7OU 4. Instrument ( ' ( 3) = A +_?aq a 73H I eat rice with a spoon. f Q 5? V NN? 3? VW? 6 6 N? F GN T F7 OU 3EF 5 F I 3EF H P G F I owith a spoonp X N7OU P 9 E J? H G H5 G Q 8 R2E (Instrumental Case) F 7 2!, -m @_ z ?4m : - She hit him with a stick. 7 75 N? ?7 . - She plays an MP3 CD with her computer. 7 78H MP3 N? 2 T 7
- I pained that picture with my hand. f PQ WO TN? E 5 f owith a stick, with her computer, 8P with my hand 8? 7OU P (Instrumental) 5. Recipient / Goal ('! a ' ( 3) = A +_ % A @ ?aÂ&#x2022; A 73H John gives the pen to her. X 9 G9?O H7 oto her ( H7 )p G F F7OU 9 E 7OÂ? 9 dKF R Q26 P H VW? 6 SG9? HVW?GN T F7OU 3EF 5 VW? I 3EF H o O Pp G Q 8 8PG F I N? 7 Goal 75? ? G O P 7T P J:O P 2
28? S 210
Goal G Theta t role H 9 JK F F75 :H 9 ? 75? 9 9 E J:O P 2 F75 78R O9 F 7 R J 8 G O P N? 2!, -m @_ z?4m : - Her mother bought a T t shirt for her. H5 7 dEI 7 EI T t shirt G9? H7 - Daeng sent the flowers to me. N H N ?G9? Hf - The ball rolled towards the wall. Â&#x2026;: Q 8 8 I O Â&#x2C6; V ofor her, to mep 7OU Recipient (VW? QO P 3 ) 8P otowards the wallp 7OU Goal 2E 7OU J F F 5 :H O9 8? 7OU O P 6. Source ( a ' ( 3) % A @ 2 ,m 9 +_>* 73H She bought the book from Thailand. 7 dEI 9 E X O P7 ofrom Thailandp 7OU O P 9 E Q H X 9 2E VW? 6 6 OX F GN T F7OU 3EF 5 F I 3EF H o O Pp
2!, -m @_ z?4m : - Good smell spreads from inside of my room. 8 F 9 X 5? G 9? 5 f - The river flows from the mountain. H I6 98 X W75 8W I - I come from U.S.A. f X U.S.A.
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ofrom inside my room, from the mountain, from U.S.A.p 8? 7OU Source 2E 98H F 9 E 98H 6 7 N7 Q N? Q O PG Q 8 F 7 ... 7. Location ( ( ' ( 3) = A +_ 2= #A m A @ 9 * +_ +?A2 ? * `" 73H :- She met him in Bangkok. 7 TQ75 F : 7 T oin Bangkokp X N7OU P 2E VW? 6 6 FGN T F7OU 3EF 5 F I 3EF H P 2!, -m @_ z?4m : - They stay in London. T 75 WHG 8 N - I sleep on the floor. f Q TEI - He sits at the door. T 75 F WH FO P W oin London, on the floor, at the doorp 7OU Location 2E P , #2 2m
3A,m Case (, .!22 ) ! Theta Â? role (' ( 3) I 9 N2E WO QQ5 O P 2 F7O Q7 QG WO5 P FX J? TWNG WO5 Case R2E o p G WO H S5 Q 8 F 7 H7 X H P9 H Case ( ) Q Theta t role ( P) H 9 H F H 2: Q 5 Case ( ) I XP7O8 F O WO 5 X H2: Q 5 Theta t role H7O8 F PXP Q G 8 P 5 2 9 H 7TEF G9?79R T 3 NS O NNW H G3?G H O I
212
Active Voice (
2 , 9 ) 2!, -m
Peter Theta t role Agent ( P) : P Case Nominative ( ) O Passive Voice (
, 9 ) 2!, -m The red pen Theta t role Theme ( P) P
gave
the red pen Theme P Accusative :
to Malee Recipient O P Dative X : J
was given
to Malee by Peter Recipient Agent O : P P Case Nominative Dative Instrumental ( ) O X : J 9 XP Q 7T F 7 G9?79R 3 NS H 2 H P9 H Case Q Theta t role I 7OU H G O P 2 Active Voice ( : X ) J? TWNG H Theta t role, oPeterp 7OU Agent 2E VW? 6 / : P, the red pen 7OU Theme 2E o Pp 8P oto Maleep 7OU oRecipientp 2E O P , 7 E F O P 27O8 F 7OU Passive Voice ( X ) 9 ? F5 R 2 7N 2E 72 6 9 ? F H G Active Voice R 2 6 9 ? F I WHG Passive Voice, HJ? TWNG H5 Case I 78H G O P 2 Active Voice ( : X ) oPeterp 7OU Nominative Case (O ), the red pen 7OU Accusative Case ( : ) T O P 27O8 F 7OU Passive Voice ( X ) WO 5 Case R7O8 F O oPeterp 72 7OU Nominative Case (O ) G Active Voice R 8 7OU Instrumental Case ( ) 8P the red pen dKF 7OU Accusative Case ( : ) R 8 7OU Nominative Case (O ) 7 H Malee I 2 6 9 ? F7N I2E 2 H P9 H Theta t role Q Case
Linguistic Grammar Of English
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+_ ' A , 9 G Q I7 XP K WO QQ5 O P 2 H EF 7 ? 75? GX H 7 EF K WO QQO P 2 R2E K 7 EF o X p 9 E Voice G F 7 26 H o X p 2E P ? o X p R2E oVW? 8H p J? 8H G9?VW? 6 7OU O P O P 2 X N7OU : X (Active Voice) J? 8H G9?VW?JW 6 7OU O P G O P 2 X N7OU X (Passive Voice) 26 H Voice O8 H o X p G Q 8 Active Voice (
2 , 9 ) # 3 Passive Voice (
, 9 ) Active Voice 2E : X 9 JK O P 2 F 8H JK VW? P 6 8? VW? 6 I 98P5KI 7OU O P G O P 2 73H : I eat an apple. f O7OÂ&#x201E;Â&#x2019;8 G O P 2 I oIp 7OU O P 5 oeatp 8P oeatp dKF 7OU 5 2E Finite Verb 5 O P 2 8P7OU (Transitive Verb) ? 7 9 8P oan applep 7OU 2E : F 7 O P 2 IQ 9 ? F 5 oIp H 6 P ? 8? PN Q oIp 5KI 7OU O P G O P 2 I2E 5 Active Voice ( : X ) a 30- Active Voice (
2 , 9 ) +0
' 2 Tense !" 12 Tenses *! +"
214
Simple
Present Tense (aÂ&#x2020;99 ! )
Continuous Perfect Perfect Continuous
Simple
Past Tense ( *+2 ) Future Tense ( 2 )
Continuous Perfect Perfect Continuous Simple Continuous Perfect Perfect Continuous
= S. + V1 (O P Q: : F 3 7 TX
7 s 9 E es) + £ = S. + is,am,are + V1 + ing +£ = S. + have,has + V3 + £. = S. + have,has +been + V1 + ing + £.
= S. + V2 (O P Q: : F 3 7 TX
7 s 9 E es) + £ = S. + was,were + V1 + ing +£ = S. + had + V3 + £. = S. + had +been + V1 + ing + £.
= S. + will,shall +V1 + £ = S. + will,shall + be + V1 + ing +£ = S. + will,shall + have + V3 + £. = S. + will,shall + have +been + V1 + ing + £.
2!, -m a 30- Active Voice > a Tense !" 12 *! +" Linguistic Grammar Of English
215
Present Tense
Simple
=
Continuous
=
Perfect
=
Perfect Continuous
=
Simple
= I ate an apple. f O7OÂ&#x201E;Â&#x2019;8 8? = I was eating an apple. f 6 8 O7OÂ&#x201E;Â&#x2019;8 8? = I had eaten an apple. f N? O7OÂ&#x201E;Â&#x2019;8 O 8? = I had been eating an apple. f N? 6 8 O7OÂ&#x201E;Â&#x2019;8 8?
Continuous
Past Tense N 8
216
Perfect Perfect Continuous
I eat an apple. f QO P O7OÂ&#x201E;Â&#x2019;8 I am eating an apple. f 6 8 O7OÂ&#x201E;Â&#x2019;8 I have eaten an apple. f O7OÂ&#x201E;Â&#x2019;8 O 8? I have been eating an apple. f N? 6 8 O7OÂ&#x201E;Â&#x2019;8 8?
Simple
Future Tense
= I shall eat an apple. f XP O7OÂ&#x201E;Â&#x2019;8 = I shall be eating an apple.
Continuous f 6 8 XP O7OÂ&#x201E;Â&#x2019;8 = I shall have eaten an apple.
Perfect f N? O7OÂ&#x201E;Â&#x2019;8 O 8? = I shall have been eating an apple.
Perfect Continuous f N? 6 8 O7OÂ&#x201E;Â&#x2019;8 8?
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217
'm, Passive Voice 2E X 9 JK 2 ? 5 O P 2 F QH JK VW? JW P 6 G O P 2 : X 8? VW? JW 6 5KI 7OU O P 5 O P 2 73H An apple is eaten by me O7OÂ&#x201E;Â&#x2019;8JW f 9 7 ? 8 Q ONWO P 2 Active Voice ( : X ) oan applep 6 9 ? F7OU HT G WO5 Passive Voice ( X ) 7 7 oan applep 5KI 7OU O P G 8 Q oIp G Active Voice F72 6 9 ? F7OU O P HT 7O8 F X 7 R7 oIp OO P Q7OU WO5 7TEF Q H N G2 2E by me , (+?a +_- Active Voice ?aq Passive Voice 7O8 F X : X (Active Voice) 7OU X (Passive Voice) N :O N I : (1) 7O8 F G : X O7OU O P G X (2) 7 O P G : X O X 7OU 7 I 2E 7 by 5? 9 ? 73H by me, by him (3) 7O8 F I ? G9? I 8 Q X P Q: : OÂ&#x2039;XX : 5 I (4) 5 (Finite Verb) 7O8 F O7OU 3H 3 ' a0
' a 30- (Passive Voice)> a Tense 12 *! +" :
218
Present Tense (aÂ&#x2020;99 ! ) Past Tense ( *+2 )
Future Tense ( 2 )
Simple Continuous Perfect Perfect Continuous Simple Continuous Perfect Perfect Continuous
Simple Continuous Perfect Perfect Continuous
= S. + is ,am,are + V3 + by ÂŁ = S. + is,am,are + being + V3 + by ÂŁ = S. + have,has + been + V3 + by ÂŁ. = S. + have,has +been + being + V3 + byÂŁ. = S. + was,were + V3 + by ÂŁ = S. + was,were + being + V3 + by ÂŁ = S. + had + been + V3 + by ÂŁ. = S. + had +been + being + V3 + byÂŁ.
= S. + will,shall + be + V3 + byÂŁ = S. + will,shall + be + being + V3 + byÂŁ = S. + will,shall + have + been + V3 + byÂŁ = S. + will,shall + have +been + being + V3 + byÂŁ.
H O I XP H X N 7 H FG9? ? 8? G : X N I I7TEF G9?79R 2 7O8 F O8 3 NS 2 I N I :
Linguistic Grammar Of English
219
Simple
Present Tense
= An apple is eaten by me. O7OÂ&#x201E;Â&#x2019;8JW f 8? Continuous = An apple is being eaten by me. O7OÂ&#x201E;Â&#x2019;8 6 8 JW f Perfect = An apple has been eaten by me. O7OÂ&#x201E;Â&#x2019;8 N?JW f 8? Perfect = An apple has been being Continuous eaten by me. O7OÂ&#x201E;Â&#x2019;8 6 8 N?JW f 8?
Simple
Past Tense
220
= Apple was eaten by me. O7OÂ&#x201E;Â&#x2019;8JW f 8? Continuous = An apple was being eaten by me. O7OÂ&#x201E;Â&#x2019;8 6 8 JW f 8? Perfect = An apple had been eaten by me. O7OÂ&#x201E;Â&#x2019;8 N?JW f O 8? Perfect = An apple had been being Continuous eaten by me. O7OÂ&#x201E;Â&#x2019;8 6 8 N?JW f 8?
Simple
Continuous
Future Tense
Perfect
Perfect Continuous
= An apple will be eaten by me. O7OÂ&#x201E;Â&#x2019;8XPJW f = An apple will be being eaten by me. O7OÂ&#x201E;Â&#x2019;8 6 8 XPJW f = An apple will have been eaten by me. O7OÂ&#x201E;Â&#x2019;8XPJW f 8? = An apple will have been being eaten by me. O7OÂ&#x201E;Â&#x2019;8 6 8 XPJW
aa 30- Active Voice (
2 , 9 ) +_ + - 4m,- 2!, ?' O P 2 Active Voice ( : X ) Q O P 2 3H Q 8:H 7 dKF 3H 798H I N? H can, could, may, might, must 7OU ? J? 7 ? 8 QX Active Voice ( : X ) 7OU Passive Voice ( X ) XP 6 H R79 E 2 ? F N? N G9?NW 8? I H ? HJ? XPG3? 3H (Auxiliary Verb) EF RXP N? 2 ? N I : can could may might must + be + V3 + by£ O P ought to has to Subject have to (be) going to
Linguistic Grammar Of English
221
2!, -m : Active: He can drive a car. 75 J5 Q J N? Passive: A car can be driven by him. J JJW 5 Q N? N 75 Active :
I may write a letter this week. f X75 XN9 f ON 9 I Passive: A letter may be written by me this week. XN9 XJW 75 N f ON 9 I Active :
Chalerm must clean the room. 7f8 XP ? 6 2 P N9? Passive : The room must be cleaned by Chalerm. 9 ? XP ? JW 6 2 P N N 7f8 Active :
I ought to meet her today. f 2 XPTQ98H I Passive: She ought to be met by me today. 98H 2 JW TQ N f I Active :
He is going to sell his car. 75 XP5 J5 75 Passive: His car is going to be sold by him. J5 75 XPJW 5 N 75
I 9 N F 8H 7OU 8 Q X FG3? 3H (Helping / Auxiliary Verb) EF S X will 8P shall FO e WHG 2 ? F S O
222
- +_p m' < = >A ?aq Passive Voice (
, 9 ) p* G F H J 6 G9?7OU Passive Voice N? N I : 1 Intransitive Verb (
- ) ?4m :sleep ( ) go ( O) speak(TWN) fly (Q ) stand ( E ) light (G9? H ) sit ( F ) regret(7 GX) dance(7 ? 6 ) stay (T / ) come ( ) run ( F ) 7OU ? F H J H 7OU Passive Voice N? R7T P H FXP 6 O P 2 Active Voice ( : X ) G9?7OU Passive Voice ( X ) I ? 7OU Transitive Verb ( ) 2E 7 9 G F I R2E : G : (Accusative Case) F 7 L5 Passive Voice 9 E X 2E 5KI 7OU O P HG 7 EF : X (Active Voice) H7 9 XK H J 6 9 ? FO P G O P 2 N? 73H
I sleep well.
f 98 Q Q
osleepp (98 Q) G F I H N?7 9 (Object) Q7 XK H JXP H 7OU Passive Voice N? H well FO e WH5? 98 I 2E Adverb 9 E 7 9 E 7 P G Q 8 F 7 ... 2 - +_ p m ? + - A 2! ,
(Object) #2m ? + - A 2! , Complement (, 2 !22 ) Q 8:H 7 EF O e WHG Active Voice ( : X ) H N?7 9 (Object) 7 EF H 7 9 8? 7 R H J H G9? 7 OU
Linguistic Grammar Of English
223
O P 2 X N? 8:H I 7 9 Complement dKF 7 W? G Q 8 H o p9 E 5 5? 2 73H I am a student. f 7OU K G O P 2 oamp 7OU Finite Verb ( 5 ) H7 9 (Object) G 8 Q 7 9 Complement (Theta Â? role/Q-role)) 7 G9?O P 2 QW F 7 Q 798H I 2E (Complement) HG3H (Object) a 30- @_ z ?4m : I feel hot today. f W? K ? I They look good. T 75 NWN He became a king. 75 N?7OU T P 3 8? She looks sad. 98H NW H 7 ? ? Your idea proves useful. 2 2 N5 H T WX H G3? N? They seemed sleepy. T 75 NW79 E XP H She remains beautiful. 98H 2 79 E 7N I feel bad. f W? K HN hot, good, a kind, sad, useful, sleepy, beautiful, bad 798H I 8? 7OU o p I I H N?7OU 8H N :O F7 9 o p N? H N H O I : be = 7OU , W,H 2E , prove = T WX
remain = 2 798E sound = 7 look = NW, 7TH get = N? Q feel = W? K 224
appear = seem taste become go turn stay grow show = rest
O e = W? K = = 8 7OU = O = 8 Q = W,H T = 7X , N = T , 9 H GX
7OU ?
8P F8 ed OÂ&#x2039;XX 98 F 8H 8? 5? ? F7 oedp 798H I JE H 7OU o p WHG 8? H / 7OU 7 8 O8 ? G3? H o7OU p 7 H HG F I X 98 FG3?73H 7N Q H H 7OU R N? H 73H : I feel surprised. f W? K O P98 NGX We rest satisfied. T 7 T GX He looks disappointed. NW79 E 75 XP7 GX I am annoyed. f W? K 6 2
The Prime Minister was troubled. W? K 8:? GX He is bored to hear the bad news. 75 7QEF FXPÂ&#x2026;Â&#x2039; H7 EF ? S 4. Active Voice (
2 , 9 ) +_ +2,!
2 2!, ! Q G ? JK 2 Q JK XP N?2 9 F 3 N7X 9 KF Q 98 (Finite Verb) N 9 KF Q26 Q: T Q otop 73H ogivep O P 2 : X F give 7OU 7 8 7 9 ? 7 2 H73H I GX2 XP H QW 73H : A : I give a pen. f G9?O B : I give a pen to him./I give him a pen. f G9?O H75 Linguistic Grammar Of English
225
O P 2 A H QW G 7T P H W? G 9? O H G 2 H O P 2 B I GX2 QW 7T P of G9?O H75 p I2E H F7 9 2 2E (Direct Object) G O P 2 I R2E oa penp 9 E 8P (Indirect Object) 2E ohimp 9 E oto himp F 7 F7 9 2 Q F79R G3? WHQH S R2E : give G9? lend G9? E tell Q 78H fetch G9? 6 send H G9? promise
, G9?
show N , G9?NW teach ask J call 7 pay XH buy dEI sell 5 write 75 offer 7 answer Q Q 7OU ? 2!, -m : I told them the stories.f 78H G9?T 75 (Â&#x2026;Â&#x2039; ) The teacher teaches students Thai.2 W H 7 He promises me the award. 75
XPG9? 8 Hf She sends me a letter.98H H XN9 ( G9?f ) Darin shows the police her ID card. N N Q O PX6 H 6 X G O P 2 F 8H 5? ? them, students, me 8P the police 8? 7OU Indirect Object 2E I I G 5 P F the stories, Pali, the award, the letter 8P her ID card 7OU Direct Object 2E 7 EF 7O8 F O P 2 F 798H I WH T ? 2 X Active Voice ( : X ) O7OU Passive Voice ( X ) 7 XP7 9 7OU O P L WH H 7 EF 2 Q N 8H J? 7OU Passive
226
Voice ( X ) 75 7 (Indirect Object) 2E Q:2285KI 7OU O P 7 H 7 (Direct Object) dKF ( N ) XP7OU F 5 N H H O I : Active A : She teaches me English. 7 G9?f Passive B : I am taught English by her. f JW N 7 ( 7OU O P ) Passive C : English is taught to me by her. G9? Hf N 7 ( 7OU O P )
JW
G O P 2 A oteachesp 7 9 2 2E me 8P English, omep 7OU (O P 2 IXP H H He teaches English to me. R N? H H ) 7 EF 7O8 F 7OU Passive Voice 7 me dKF 7OU (Indirect Object) 5KI 7OU O P H FXP7 2E English 7OU O P H P I J? XP7 7OU O P R N? 73H G O P 2 C H ? 7 to 6 9 ? G F I R2E to me XK WH F2 H XP 9 E 5KI H OÂ&#x2039; 9 P 5 G9? H G9?J W 98 2 ? O P 2 RT 5. Passive Voice (
, 9 ) +_p m2 22 - , .!22 (by + NP) ?' 7 8 7 7O8 F O P 2 Active Voice ( : X ) 7OU Passive Voice ( X ) 7 KN98 N I : Active : I saw a boy yesterday. f 79R 7NR 3 7 EF I Passive : A boy was seen by me yesterday. 7NR 3 JW f 79R 7 EF I
Linguistic Grammar Of English
227
oIp G O P 2 Active Voice ( : X ) 6 9 ? FO P T 7OU O P 2 Passive Voice ( X ) oIp XPJW X 7OU 2E 7OU oby N? mep 8P oboyp dKF 7OU : G Active Voice RXP 6 9 ? F7OU O P WOO G Passive Voice. 9 7 8 T X H G O P 2 Passive Voice 9 Q? H ? G H (by + NP) RXP N?98 7 M N :I 1. ? @_ a 3( > Active Voice ?aq : '
(Personal Pronoun) @ ?4m I, we, you, he, she, it, they ? @_ ?a +_- ?aq Passive Voice '
?A m +"p m - >'m? ?4m :Active : We will play football this evening. T 7 XP78H Â&#x2026;: Q 87 R I Passive : Football will be played this evening. Â&#x2026;: Q 8XPJW 78H 7 R I G O P 2 Passive Voice H ? G HQ: : T F X N? 2E oby themp 75? R N?GX2 2. ? @_ a 3( > a 30- Active Voice ?aq '
a 3?. everyone, everybody, someone, somebody, no one, no body ? @_ ' ! Active Voice pa?aq Passive Voice p m2 ?2 '
?A m +"? ?4m : Active: No one has used this car for ten years. H G2 G3? J2 I QO[ 8? Passive :This car has not been used for ten years. J2 I H G2 G3? QO[ 8? G Passive Voice T (by no one) H ? 7 75? R7OU F 75? GX N?
228
+_' ?9Â&#x192;* = G 7 26 X6 F G 3? N 2 W? K : 9 E F7 N5KI H f QT8 26 FG3?7TEF H 2 W? K 798H I7 H 26 : (interjections) dKF H 2 T GNS73 Q26 8:H 26 9 E O P 2 F N H H O I (T T N? 7 ) Alas! This is the end! Bah! I can't believe that. Pshaw! Why did I do that? 26 F JW X6 7OU 26 : G H 5? ? I G3? 7 OU 26 : (interjection) 7 X 26 798H I 26 nouns pronouns adjectives 8P part of speech EF S R J 6 G3?7OU 26 : N? 73H Heavens! I cut my finger. Good! I'm glad to hear you. Well! When are you going? Horrors! Look at that hat! 26 : 7OU 3EF F F G9 H 6 9 Q26 78R S 7OU 7O8H 7 : I S 73H oh!, um 9 E ah! 26 798H I H 2 9 H7 R N?G3?26 798H IQH S N O G3?G TWN H 75 7 EF 7 G3? 26 : 75? G O P 2 XP H7 N 73EF H 73 G O P 2 Q 2 I 26 : XP 72 EF 9 7X (exclamation mark (!)) 98 G 75 2m pa +" @ 2!, -m >4 =
Linguistic Grammar Of English
229
=
Ah
Alas
Dear
Eh
Er
230
, A -
2!, -m
N 2 :5 (pleasure)
"Ah, that feels good."
N 2 75? GX (realization)
"Ah, now I understand."
N 2 ? GX (resignation)
"Ah well, it can't be helped."
N 2 O P98 NGX (surprise)
"Ah! I've won!"
N 2 7 ? GX9 E (grief or pity)
"Alas, she's dead now."
N 2 7 ? (pity)
"Oh dear! Does it hurt?"
N 2 O P98 NGX (surprise)
"Dear me! That's a surprise!"
5 G9?TWNdI6 (repetition)
"It's hot today." "eh?" "I said it's hot today."
QJ 2 79R (enquiry)
"What do you think of that, eh?"
N 2 O P98 NGX (surprise)
"Eh! Really?"
73 3 G9?79R N? (agreement)
"Let's go, eh?"
N 2 8 78 (hesitation)
"Lima is the capital of...er...Peru."
N (greeting)
"Hello john. How are you today?"
N 2 O P98 NGX (surprise)
"Hello! My car's gone!"
7 ? 2 GX (attention)
"Hey! Look at that!"
Hey
N 2 O P98 NGX (surprise), 2 :5 (joy)
"Hey! What a good idea!"
Hi
N (greeting)
"Hi! What's new?"
Hmm
N 2 8 78 (hesitation), (doubt) 9 E H79R N? (disagreement)
"Hmm. I'm not so sure."
N 2 O P98 NGX (surprise)
"Oh! You're here!"
N 2 7XRQO N (pain)
"Oh! I've got a toothache."
N ? (pleading)
"Oh, please say 'yes'!"
Ouch
N 2 7XRQO N (pain)
"Ouch! That hurts!"
Uh
N 2 8 78 (hesitation)
"Uh...I don't know the answer to that."
Hello, hullo
Oh, o
Uh-huh N 2 79R N? (agreement)
"Shall we go?" "uh-huh."
Um, umm
"85 divided by 5 is...um...17."
N 2 8 78 (hesitation)
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Well
N 2 O P98 NGX (surprise)
"Well I never!"
N 7 F ? 26 TWN (remark)
"Well, what did he say?"
# *' , ? >9 9 ? @ = 2 +_< 2 +_' *? +- = 2 ?*+-,> #2m 3 = < 1. __________ ! That really hurt! A. Wow B. Psst C. Ouch D. Uh-huh 2. __________, itÂ&#x161;s really cold today! A. Brr B. Ah C. Eh D. Huh 3. __________, that was close. We nearly hit that other car. A. Ugh B. Whoa C. Uh-huh D. Whew 4. __________, this tastes awful. Where did you buy it? A. Ha-ha B. Ugh C. Shh D. Whoops
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5. __________, canÂ&#x161;t you be quiet? A. Shh B. Psst C. Ah D. Hsst 6. __________, thatÂ&#x161;s amazing! A. Whoops B. Ha C. Ah D. Wow
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+_' #a* , p,- @" 1 # 3, (+>4 1. a 30- (sentence) a 30- 2 A +_ + 4 4 * 2E
a 30- ? m ?4 , Positive statement 2!, -m : John is in the garden. He is watering the flowers.
a 30- ? m ?4 Negative statement 2!, -m : John is not in the garden.
a - ?4 A @ aÂ&#x2013; ?'(
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cannot / canÂ&#x161;t should not / shouldnÂ&#x161;t will not / wonÂ&#x161;t must not / mustnÂ&#x161;t would not / wouldnÂ&#x161;t
2!, -m ::
has not / hasnÂ&#x161;t have not / havenÂ&#x161;t do not ÂĽ donÂ&#x161;t does not / doesnÂ&#x161;t did not / didnÂ&#x161;t
is not / isnÂ&#x161;t are not / arenÂ&#x161;t was not / wasnÂ&#x161;t were not / werenÂ&#x161;t
He canÂ&#x161;t come in. She isnÂ&#x161;t here. We will not fail the examination.
a 30- = < (Question) a 30- = < ?4 , 2!, -m :: WhatÂ&#x161;s your name? Do you like ice-cream? Can you swim? a 30- = < ?4 #'* , a 3A *>9 2!, -m : DonÂ&#x161;t you like ice-cream? HavenÂ&#x161;t you finished yet? a 30- = < ?4 ? @_ 2 >A @_ ?AÂ&#x192; * ,2!, -m :: IsnÂ&#x161;t peter a nice boy? ArenÂ&#x161;t you AlanÂ&#x161;s wife?
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a - a 30- = < ?4 a 30- = '!_ (Command) IsnÂ&#x161;t / arenÂ&#x161;t wasnÂ&#x161;t / werenÂ&#x161;t
doesnÂ&#x161;t / donÂ&#x161;t / didnÂ&#x161;t hasnÂ&#x161;t / havenÂ&#x161;t
a 30- = '!_ ?4 , 2!, -m : Come here Sit down. Be quiet. a 30- = '!_ ?4 2!, -m : DonÂ&#x161;t open that door. Do not cut the red wire. >4 do not donÂ&#x2014;t A @ never 2!, -m :
Do not use a pencil. DonÂ&#x161;t talk so loudly. Never drink and drive.
a 30- Exclamation ? m : Well done ! Good luck ! Goal !
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canÂ&#x161;t / couldnÂ&#x161;t
aÂ&#x2013; ?'(:
ItÂ&#x161;s not fair ! No way ! No fear ! No pain, no gain !
2. = (noun)
2!, -m
? 9 :
Somporn, John, the Buddha, Thailand.
A 9 :
apples, books, pens, pencils, inches, boxes
A 9 a ?%:: knife - knives; sheep - sheep; mouse - mice; man t men, woman, women, crisis-crises, datum-data, deer-deer, fish-fish, thesistheses, analysis-analyses
' A A @ A ,*A m (collective nouns) 2!, -m : team, class, crowd, police, club, staff, government, audience.
+_?aq (
(abstract nouns)
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2!, -m :
love, hope, beauty, happiness, enjoyment, loneliness.
+_#'* , ?aq ?9
(possessive nouns) 2!, -m :
SoponÂ&#x161;s car this means that Sopon owns a car.
>4 ? @_ A -#'* , ?aq ?9
(apostropheÂ&#x2014;s) 2!, -m ? 9 : 2!, -m A 9 :
SoponÂ&#x161;s car, my brotherÂ&#x161;s house the teachersÂ&#x161; staffroom, the studentsÂ&#x161; books
3. '
(pronouns) 2!, -m
Noun : Pronoun :
James went into the hotel. He went into the hotel.
'
+_>4 ?aq a 3( (subject pronouns)
238
T FG3? 7OU O P
H 5
I
saw
It
was
the movie. very good.
O P
Mr. Smith called I helped Somebod saw y
T WO me. him. us.
? 9 I you he she it
? 9 me you him her it
A 9 we you they
A 9 us you them
'
#'* , ?aq ?9
(possessive pronouns) mine yours his hers its ours theirs # +_? 93 *,m : ItÂ&#x161;s johnÂ&#x161;s house. ? 9 *,m : ItÂ&#x161;s his.
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4.
= = A (articles) 1. Definite article: the 2. Indefinite article: a or an 3. Zero article: HG3? the, a 9 E an.
= = A 4+"?Â&#x152; 3 (definite article) the sun the moon the stars. the dog the cat the book = = A p m4+"?Â&#x152; 3 (indefinite article) 2!, -m : an apple, an egg, an Indian, an office, an umbrella, a unit, a university, a European
= = A p m4+"?Â&#x152; 3>4 , A : 1. Q N?7 TX 2!, -m : a dog, a banana, a girl 2. 3EF 3 T 2!, -m : a teacher, a mechanic 3. 26 Q O 2!, -m : a few, a little, a lot of 4. 26 Q 2 7 R 7 8 I6 9 2!, -m : three dollars a kilo, twice a day, six kilometres an hour
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+ +_p m>4 = = A (zero article) 1. Q N?T9WTX F N 2 2 N F S O 2!, -m : Ď&#x2020; Apples are delicious. 2. Q H N? 2!, -m : Ď&#x2020; Sugar is bad for you. 3. 3EF O P7 7 E 8P O P3 3 2!, -m : Ď&#x2020; Thailand, Ď&#x2020; Bangkok, Ď&#x2020; Thai. 4. 3EF 2 5?7XRQ 2!, -m : She has Ď&#x2020; cancer.
5.
%! (adjectives)
2!, -m :active, apt, beautiful, big, small, round, square, clever, nice, pleasant, friendly, young, old, middle-aged, red, green, blue, black, white , p, A the fat man. the green balloon.
, p, A ! '
A @ a 30The water is warm.
%! #'* , ?aq ?9
(possessive adjectives) 2!, -m : my, your, his her, its + noun our, your, their + noun
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%! ?a +- ? +- !" ,m # 3 !" ' ' * (comparative and superlative adjectives) %! ?a +- ? +- !" ,m 2!, -m : big-bigger, small-smaller, nice-nicer. more expensive, more beautiful. 2!, -m : I am taller than John. The book is more enjoyable than the movie. %! ?a +- ? +- !" ' ' * 2!, -m : big-biggest, small-smallest, nice-nicest. expensive-most expensive, beautiful-most beautiful. 2!, -m : She is the tallest girl. Julia was the most attractive girl. %! +_ -* ,- -ing, ed # 3 Â?en (present and past participles) -ing Interesting frightening
-ed or -en excited broken
2!, -m : The excited children went home.
242
It was an interesting story.
6. = a (quantifiers and determiners) 1. >4 ! ! p* ? 9
each and every 2!, -m : There are two cars. Each car has a radio. 2!, -m : Every boy wants a dog.
a an another any each either every neither no
2!, -m : 1. Please give me another biscuit. 2. The competition is open to any child. 3. Every child got a present. 2. >4 ! ! p* A 9
all any both enough few fewer many more most much no other several some
some and any 2!, -m : I havenÂ&#x161;t any bread. Have you got any milk? 2!, -m : I want some bread.
2!, -m : I only have a few apples. I have enough potatoes.
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>4 ! ! p mp* all any enough less little more most much no some
2!, -m : He lost all hope. I have only a little water. We need some information.
Much 2!, -m : I havenÂ&#x161;t got much bread. How much money have you got? either 8P neither 2!, -m : You can go along either road to my house. Is your house in a road or b road ? My house is in neither road. It is in c road. 7. - (verbs)
, '` 2!, -m : I feel hot. I am angry. My name is Dhirawit.
244
3 = 2!, -m : I hit him. I cried.
3 = A @
Smoking is bad for you. Jogging is good for you.
2 , 9 -
, 9 (active-passive)
2 , 9 Subject I Mr. Sarit
Active verb ate washes
Subject She
Verb watched
End the apple. the dishes. Object television.
Subject + verb 2!, -m : I wash, you wash, he/she/ it washes, we wash, you wash, they wash
, 9 2!, -m : The floor was swept. Who swept the floor? We do not know.
- +_ +
? m !" 9` 93?a +_- ?aq a 30-
, 9 p* 2!, -m : I swept the floor. The floor was swept. J? 7 H J7 (object) 98 N? N H I 7OU F H
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2!, -m : Subject She The boy
Intransitive verb Object died X cried X
' a 30-
, 9
To be + 2!, -m : 1. Past tense 2. Present tense
246
past participle The floor was swept. The floor is swept every day.
3. Present continuous
The floor is being swept.
4. Present perfect
The floor has been swept.
5. Future
The floor will be swept.
8. (tenses)
8 9 E tense N G9?79R JK 7 8 5 P 6 9 E 79 : H 6 8 N6 7 O WH (on-going), 7 RX I 7T Q H (partly completed) ), 7 RX I N QW , (fully completed), H N?7 F (not started yet) 9 E H N? 6 9 N H (not particularly fixed) = ! *= ? pa - m: present, past and future continuous (9 E progressive) ?' Â&#x192;9' " ? +- 'm, : present perfect ?' Â&#x192;9' " 0*-' : past tense, past perfect -! p mp* ? _ : present tense -! p mp* = A *# m : present tense Present tense 2!, -m
1. He works in Tokyo. 2. I am angry. 3. They play football every week. 4. She is tall and thin. Past tense 2!, -m : 1. She ate two apples yesterday. 2. I met him in the market. 3. We had a good time.
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Past perfect 2!, -m : 1. He felt cold. 2. He had forgotten to bring his coat. Past, present and future continuous (or progressive) 2!, -m : 1. It is raining. 2. I was shopping (when the earthquake happened). Future time 2!, -m : 1. He will win. 2. IÂ&#x161;ll help you. Present tense ( = A *,! ?, # m ) 2!, -m : My train leaves at 6 a.m. Present continuous (?2 +- A @ , #Â&#x2C6; ? p, ) 2!, -m : IÂ&#x161;m meeting John at lunch time. Going to (#'* , 2!" >9A @ *A,! ) 2!, -m : 1. IÂ&#x161;m going to kill you. 2. It is going to rain.
248
a 30- ? @_ p (Conditionals)
# +_A `_
If + present tense + will
# +_'
If + subjunctive + would, should, etc.
#'* , # m>9,m 932 ? * `"
#'* , # m>9,m 93p m ? * `"
2!, -m : If I catch the thief, he will go to jail.
2!, -m : If we were clever, we would catch the thief (but we are not clever, so we will probably not find the thief)
# +_' If + past perfect tense + would have, should have, etc. #'* ,m p mp* ? * `" 9
?aq ? +- ' 2 2!, -m : If we had stayed awake, we would have seen the tiger (but we definitely did not stay awake so we did not see the tiger).
- 4m,- (auxiliary verbs) - 4m,- + 2 4 *: - 4m,-(
*
- 4m,- a ?%:
do, have, be
can - could dare may - might must shall - should need
1. Tenses
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2!, -m : present perfect : I have found it. passive : It was broken. present continuous : I am coming. 2. Questions 2!, -m : do : Does he know her? What do you want? be : Is she a dancer? What is her name? have : Have you got a cigarette ? Where have you been? 3. Negatives 2!, -m : do: I don t like him. be: He isn t very nice. have: I haven t seen him.
250
will to to
- would
ought used
* 8:H I H 7 s, ing, 9 E ed 2!, -m
1.must 2!, -m : You must brush your teeth. 2.should 2!, -m : You should go to the doctor. He should arrive soon. 3.ought to 2!, -m : You ought to do it now. 4. can 2!, -m : I can swim. smoking can be dangerous. can I go now? 5.may 2!, -m : You may go now. It may rain tomorrow.
6.would 2!, -m : Would you help me? Would you like to go to a movie? Would you like a drink?
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9. - , ?%: (adverbs) - , ?%: # m ?aq 5 4 * @ 1. - , ?%: !a - (adverbs of manner) 2!, -m : easily, happily, loudly, quietly, quickly, fast, hard, well, straight (4 98 I H ? 7 ly ) 2. - , ?%: ?, (adverbs of time) 2!, -m : Now what are we going to do? HeÂ&#x161;ll be here soon. 3. - , ?%: , <+_ ( adverbs of frequency) 2!, -m : always, usually, seldom, sometimes, often, never. 4. - , ?%: '< +_ (adverbs of place) 2!, -m : near by, upstairs, everywhere, somewhere, anywhere, here, on the left, over there, in the library. 5. - , ?%: 3*! (adverbs of degree) 2!, -m : very quite rather fairly so almost nearby slightly just too extremely entirely
252
10. (prepositions) + 3 4 * @ 1. '< +_ (prepositions of place) in on at near behind under between opposite next to 2!, -m : At 2!, -m : HeÂ&#x161;s at the station. SheÂ&#x161;s at home.
In 2!, -m : HeÂ&#x161;s in Bangkok. I enjoyed my holiday in China. They are in the kitchen. They are in the restaurant.
On 2!, -m : The cat is sitting on the wall. Your keys are on the table.
2. ? @_ pA, (prepositions of motion) 2!, -m : around, along, across, towards, to, from, out of, into. 2!, -m a 30- : They cycled along the path. He walked across the road.
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3. ?, (prepositions of time) 2!, -m : on, at, in, before, during, after, for, since, until On on Mondays (every Monday) on Monday, e.g. IÂ&#x161;ll see you on Monday. For ! since
At
In
at six oÂ&#x161;clock at three thirty
in January in February in March
>4 for 2!, -m : I have been waiting for 20 minutes.
11.
>4 since 2!, -m : I have been waiting since 5.45.
= ?4@_ (conjunctions)
2!, -m : and but so or because therefore either ... or as ... as if since although A. ?4@_ a 30- A ! ! ?4@_ a 30- A !
254
2!, -m : Mrs. Jandra likes gold watches. (main) Mrs. Jandra likes diamond jewelry. (main) = Mrs. Jandra likes gold watches and diamond jewelry. B. ?4@_ a 30- A ! ! ?4@_ a 30-
2!, -m : Mrs. Jandra likes gold watches. (main) They are expensive. (subordinate) = Mrs. Jandra likes gold watches although they are expensive. 1. , A - = ?4@_ A. ? _ ?2 : and 2!, -m : He went to the shops and bought some things. B. !*#- : but, yet, nevertheless, still, however 2!, -m : He is tall but he is not handsome. C. ? @ : or, either ...or, neither ...nor 2!, -m : He is either in the library or at home. D. ?A2 Â&#x2C6; : as, because, since 2!, -m : He became ill because he didnÂ&#x161;t eat properly. E. Â&#x2C6; ! ( : so, therefore, for 2!, -m : I felt tired so I went straight to bed.
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# Â&#x2DC;Â&#x2122; A!* , ' * - (final review): 'm, 2m z = * (parts of speech) 9
3 part of speech = +_ * ,-2!, ! : ` > #2m 3a 302m pa +" 1. The clown chased a dog around the ring and then fell flat on her face. 1. verb 2. noun 3. pronoun 4. adjective 5. adverb 6. preposition 7. conjunction 8. interjection 2. The geese indolently waddled across the intersection. 1. verb 2. noun 3. pronoun 4. adjective 5. adverb 6. preposition 7. conjunction 8. interjection 3. Yikes! I'm late for class. 1. verb 2. noun 3. pronoun 4. adjective
256
5. adverb 6. preposition 7. conjunction 8. interjection 4. Pat's shabby thesaurus tumbled out of the book bag when the bus suddenly pulled out into traffic. 1. verb 2. noun 3. pronoun 4. adjective 5. adverb 6. preposition 7. conjunction 8. interjection 5. Sopon angrily stamped out the fire that the local hooligans had started on his verandah. 1. verb 2. noun 3. pronoun 4. adjective 5. adverb 6. preposition 7. conjunction 8. interjection 6. Later that summer, she asked herself, "what was i thinking of?" 1. verb 2. noun 3. pronoun 4. adjective Linguistic Grammar Of English
257
5. adverb 6. preposition 7. conjunction 8. interjection 7. She thought that the twenty zucchini plants would not be enough so she planted another ten. 1. verb 2. noun 3. pronoun 4. adjective 5. adverb 6. preposition 7. conjunction 8. interjection 8. Although she gave hundreds of zucchini away, the enormous mound left over frightened her. 1. verb 2. noun 3. pronoun 4. adjective 5. adverb 6. preposition 7. conjunction 8. interjection 9. Everywhere she went, she talked about the prolific veggies. 1. verb 2. noun 3. pronoun 258
4. adjective 5. adverb 6. preposition 7. conjunction 8. interjection 10. The manager confidently made his presentation to the board of directors. 1. verb 2. noun 3. pronoun 4. adjective 5. adverb 6. preposition 7. conjunction 8. interjection 11. Frankenstein is the name of the scientist, not the monster. 1. verb 2. noun 3. pronoun 4. adjective 5. adverb 6. preposition 7. conjunction 8. interjection 12. Her greatest fear is that the world will end before she finds a comfortable pair of panty-hose. 1. verb 2. noun 3. pronoun Linguistic Grammar Of English
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4. adjective 5. adverb 6. preposition 7. conjunction 8. interjection 13. That suitcase is hers. 1. verb 2. noun 3. pronoun 4. adjective 5. adverb 6. preposition 7. conjunction 8. interjection 14. Everyone in the room cheered when the announcement was made. 1. verb 2. noun 3. pronoun 4. adjective 5. adverb 6. preposition 7. conjunction 8. interjection 15. The sun was shining as we set out for our first winter camping trip. 1. verb 2. noun 3. pronoun 4. adjective 5. adverb 260
6. preposition 7. conjunction 8. interjection 16. Small children often insist that they can do it by themselves. 1. verb 2. noun 3. pronoun 4. adjective 5. adverb 6. preposition 7. conjunction 8. interjection 17. Dust covered every surface in the locked bedroom. 1. verb 2. noun 3. pronoun 4. adjective 5. adverb 6. preposition 7. conjunction 8. interjection 18. The census taker knocked loudly on all the doors but nobody was home. 1. verb 2. noun 3. pronoun 4. adjective 5. adverb 6. preposition Linguistic Grammar Of English
261
7. conjunction 8. interjection 19. They wondered if there truly was honour among thieves. 1. verb 2. noun 3. pronoun 4. adjective 5. adverb 6. preposition 7. conjunction 8. interjection 20. Exciting new products and effective marketing strategies will guarantee the company's success. 1. verb 2. noun 3. pronoun 4. adjective 5. adverb 6. preposition 7. conjunction 8. interjection
262
. Â&#x2C6; , - a ?%: (Irregular Verbs) +_ ?AÂ&#x192; m -
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
Verb
Simple past
Past participle
Be Become Begin Bite Break Bring Build Buy Catch Choose Come Cut Do Draw Drink Drive Eat Fall Feed Feel Fly
Was Became Began Bit Broke Brought Built Bought Caught Chose Came Cut Did Drew Drank Drove Ate Fell Fed Felt Flew
Been Become Begun Bitten Broken Brought Built Bought Caught Chosen Come Cut Done Drawn Drunk Driven Eaten Fallen Fed Felt Flown
7OU WH 2E 8 7OU 7 F ? N 6 6 ? H ? dEI X Q 2 ? 78E N 6 N WO NEF 5 Q 5 Q J 8? OÂ? W? K Q
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263
22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47
264
Verb
Simple past
Past participle
Forget Forgive Freeze Get Give Go Grow Have Hide Hit Keep Know Lay Lie Let Lie Make Put Rise Run Say See Seek Sing Sink Speak
Forgot Forgave Froze Got Gave Went Grew Had Hid Hit Kept Knew Laid Lay Let Lied Made Put Rose Ran Said Saw Sought Sang Sank Spoke
Forgotten Forgiven Frozen Got Given Gone Grown Had Hidden Hit Kept Known Laid Lain Let Lied Made Put Risen Run Said Seen Sought Sung Sunk Spoken
8E G9? Q Q N N? N? Q G9? O O8W 7 Q dH :Q 7 RQ 5H 8 O8H G9? 9 , TWN7 RX 6 ? 8: 5KI 5KI W F TWN 8H 79R NW 9 2? 9 ? ? 7T8 X 6 G9?X TWN
48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63
Verb
Simple past
Past participle
Spend Stand Steal Swear Swim Take Teach Tear Think Understand Upset Wake Wear Weep Win Write
Spent Stood Stole Swore Swam Took Taught Tore Thought Understood Upset Woke Wore Wept Won Wrote
Spent Stood Stolen Sworn Swam Taken Taught Torn Thought Understood
G3?XH E 5 Q H I6 7 6 O f 2 N 75? GX
Upset
V N9 6 G9?V N9
Woken Worn Wept Won Written
EF 5KI G H 7 ? ? 9? 3 P 75
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#A m
3 %! . : % '2 Â&#x152; ! 4 ! 2-'< !" +_A `_ .%.2546 ,0 2 ' * 2< , %.* . * . (2537). . : % '2 ?A 3' !-? @" 2 . ? : '= ! 2 (
. . 0 , * . 3 A . (2545 ). A ? +- . : ! ;:. ? :0
A 9 Â&#x161; 4, - !-. > @ G A ! '@ Aarts, Bas (2001) English Syntax And Argumentation, Second Edition, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Aarts, F. and Aarts, J. (1982) English Syntactic Structures: Functions And Categories In Sentence Analysis, Oxford: Pergamon Press. Burton-Roberts, N. (1997) Analysing Sentences, Second Edition, London: Longman. Gramley, S. and Pätzold, K.-M. (1992) A Survey Of Modern English, London: Routledge. Greenbaum, S. and Quirk, R. (1990) A Student's Grammar Of The English Language, London: Longman.
266
Greenbaum, S. (1996) The Oxford English Grammar, Oxford: Oxford University Press. Huddleston, R. (1984) Introduction To The Grammar Of English, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Huddleston, R. (1988) English Grammar: An Outline, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Kuiper, K and Scott Allan, W. (1996) An Introduction To English Language, London: Macmillan. Leech, G. and Svartvik, J. (1994) A Communicative Grammar Of English, 2nd Edition, London: Longman. Nelson, G. (2001) English: An Essential Grammar. London: Routledge. Quirk, R., Greenbaum, S., Leech, G. and Svartvik, J. (1985) A Comprehensive Grammar Of The English Language, London: Longman. ReaÂ&#x161;s Testbuster for the TOEFL CBT. 2002. New Jersey: Research & Education Association. Wardhaugh, R. (1995) Understand English Grammar, Oxford: Blackwell.
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9 Chalker, S. and E. Weiner (1994) The Oxford Dictionary of English Grammar. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Crystal, D. (1992) A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics. Third Edition. Oxford: Blackwell. Eastwood, J. The Oxford Guide to English Grammar (1994). Hurford, J. (1994) Grammar: A Student's Guide. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Leech, G. (1989) An A-Z of English Grammar and Usage. London: Edward Arnold. Trask, R. L. (1993) A Dictionary of Grammatical Terms in Linguistics. London and New York: Routledge. ' Asher, R. E. (ed.) (1994) The Encyclopedia Of Language And Linguistics. Oxford, oxford university press. Bright, W. (ed.) (1992) International Encyclopedia of Linguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Collinge, N. E. (ed.) (1989) An Encyclopedia of Language. London: Routledge. Crystal, D. (1987) The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
268
Crystal, D. (1995) The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Mcarthur, T. (1992) The Oxford Companion to the English Language. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
?,Â&#x192; pI2 www.englishpage.com www.englishclub.com www.google.com Www.teachingenglish.org.uk
. Â&#x2C6; , , 3. : % '2 LINGUISTIC QUOTATIONS N .
Ph.D. ( ) 9 8 7 2 :
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1. + 2 /?9@ 1. 7OU N Q 2 XK 2 G3? H P N P Q2 Q 7OU F dEF H H F7 H XK 2 G3?N? O3
P 9 H HGX7 Q ? HTWN N H 9 HGX 8? TWNN H 7 Q 2. F H EF P 78 7 H ?2 9 ?2 9 H H P N H 2 7 Q ? P +_ : O 3 , 2526, 9 ? 13 2. ( . .,.) ` ; ( ) a 0 4 79 : F 6 G9?7 N2 Q G I G 5 I 79R XP7 F Q G3? dKF 7O8 F O8 O78R S ? S 8P7 EF Q 8? R7O8 F O8 H O G 8 P F8: 8 H OX P F Â&#x2026;Â&#x2039; H N? T
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. . ., O.3. 7 :98 9 ? T8 QT8 N7 T T 9 QN F 14 J: T: 3 2533 9 ? 26-27 16. '. % , ! : 1. O8 R79 E Q 75 TWN 2E ? Â&#x2C6;Â&#x160; ?7 S 2. O89 E I VW? O8 H ? W? I XP O87OU ? W? I N 7OU T 7 +_ : 8OP 9H O8, T T 2 I F 4, 2532, 9 ? 13, 19 17. Abercrombie, D. A mediumÂŁÂŁ. is not in itself language; it is a vehicle for language. +_ : D. Abercrombie (1967) : Problems and Principles in Language Study, p.2 EF 8 G3H G 5 7 H 7OU T 9 P 6 9 Q 18. Aitchison, J. Linguistics is the systematic study of language and attempts to answer the two fundamental questions : What is language? And how does it work? +_ : J. Aitchison (1978) : Linguistics, p. 4 of cover 2E K F7OU PQQ 8P2 T FXP Q26 J 98 O P : P 2E ? 8P 6 H ?
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19. Akmajian, Andrian Language change, then, offers important evidence about the nature of human language-namely that it is rule-governed. +_ : Akmajian, Demers and Harnich (1979) : Linguistics : An Introduction to Language and Communication, p. 226. (N I ) 7O8 F O8 5 XK G9?98 6 2 7 F Q 3 5 : F 2E H 7OU F L7 M
20. Anonymous The main core of language is NOT a SELF-CONTAINED SYSTEM, which can be characterized independently of the society, culture, personalities, beliefs, etc. of the speakers of the language. H ? F 6 2 5 8? H7OU o PQQ QW G 7 p dKF 7 J XP 72 P9 N? N PX 2 a Q:28 8 8P EF S 5 VW?TWN I S 21. Anonymous The golden rule of effective English is to say what one has to say in the fewest possible words. L 5 G3? F O P T R2 E TWNG F F ? XP TWN N G3?26 G9? ? F :N7 H FXP7OU O N?
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8PTWN 8 5Q5 : H 8? 7 F 5? Q 23. Aristotle Phusei ton onomaton ouden estin. (GREEK) H 26 9 78 F2 N? ? 5KI
24. Ayer, A.J. A complete philosophical elucidation of any language would consist, first, in enumerating the types of sentence that were significant in that language, and then in displaying the relations of equivalence that held between sentences of various types. +_ : A.J. Ayer (1976) : Language, Truth and Logic, p. 83
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Q GN 9 KF H XH 3 N 8P QW QQ G H5 O 3 O P XP ? O P QN? Q 5 2 3 N H S 5 O P 2 F 6 2 G I S X I N G9?79R JK 2 T Q5? 2 F 79 E dKF 73EF 3 N H S 75? N? 25. Bartram, Mark 1. The mistake is evidence of learning. 5? V NT8 N7OU O PX T 5 7 W? 2. ÂŁÂŁ.. Teachers have to allow the students room to make guesses, experiment and be creative with the language. They have to have the opportunity. VW? ? G9?VW?7 N? 2 N7N N8 8P 2 2 N 7 F ? 2
G 73 I 2E VW?7 XP ? N? Q G9? 26. Beaugrande, Robert De Linguistics is a typical science to the degree that its theories must deal, however implicitly, with the question of context. Yet linguistics is unique to the degree that its object domain is simultaneously its most powerful vehicle of discovery : Language study is regulated, expounded, negotiated, and disseminated via language itself. +_ : Robert de Beaugrande : Linguistics as discourse : A Case Stydy from Semantics : Word, vol. 35, no. 1 (April 84) p. 18
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7 OU H G H F H L 5 XP ? TW N 7 F QOÂ&#x2039; 9 Q Q ( F JW 6 G3?) ? H 7 XPTWNJK QQ Â&#x2C6; P P I R 7 8 P7OU 5 7 G H F H F F K 7OU 72 EF E 2? TQ T8 F G9 H OT ? G 7 N? : K 7 EF JW L7 M JW 7X X H 8PJW 7V T H N VH F 7 27. Beecher, Henry W. Words are the pegs to hang ideas on. 26 TWN 2E ? 5 2 2 N 28. Berger, Y. Regarde ce chaos depuis que les mots ont quitte les choses! (FRENCH) +_ : Y. Berger : Le Sud NW ! : I H2 :H Q 7T P H 26 TWN H N? WH P H P 7 8? 29. Bloomfield, Leonard The only useful generalizations about language are inductive generalizations. +_ : Bloomfield, (1935) : Language, p. 20 Q L7 M F O5 3 N7N F7OU O P 3 R2E Q L7 M F O QQ G9?79 :V8X F X6 7T P O9 F 8 ( : )
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30. Bolinger, Dwight 1. Language may be an edifice where everything hangs together, but it has more patching and gluing about it than it has architectonics. X7OU 7T F H ? F : H 9? 5 WHN? 8P O : H FXP a J OÂ&#x2039;
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2. When the language is supplied with subatomic particles (distinctive features), atoms (phonemes), and molecules (syllables), the next step is to go from physics to biology, to find the cells and their assemblies that make up the living matter of language. + _ : Dwight Bolinger (1981) : Aspects of Language, p. 52 7 EF W78R H P (8 P F H ) P (9 H 7 ) 8P 78 :8 (T 2 ) ? H O R2E ? 7 F X Â&#x2026;Â&#x201E; O9 3 7TEF 2? 9 7d88 8P H O P QdKF 6 G9? 7OU F 3 31. Berlitz, Charles No one knows when or where languages started, what the first language was, or which is the oldest language now spoken. It is generally accepted that language evolved from the series of sound signals such as one used by birds, fish, and land and marine animals. +_ : Charles Berlitz (1984) : Native Tongues, p. 9
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7 7OU 3:N S F O8 Q 8P I6 G3? 32. Boas, Frans Every human language has a definite and limited group and number of sounds and every language has its own peculiar system, phonological and grammatical. +_ : Franz Boas (1911) : Handbook of American Indian Languages. : : 8:H 8PX6 7 F H 8PX6 N 8P : S H R PQQ7 8P F O8 O P98 N7OU 5 7 33. Bright, John The knowledge of the ancient languages is mainly a luxury. +_ : A Treasury of Humour and Satire edited by M.S.Choubey, (1977), p. 64 2 W? Q I 98 98H 7OU 7T 2 W? FÂ&#x2026;:Â&#x2030; 7Â&#x2026;Â&#x17D; 7 X6 7OU 34. British Proverb Words that may become alive and walk up and down in the hearts of man. 26 TWN 3 J7N 5KI 7N 8 WHG 9 GX5 : N? 35. Burling, R. Speakers of all languages in all parts of the world credit some of their fellows with superior linguistics skills, and those so recognized are often paid a special respect, (linguistics virtuosity)
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+_ : R. Burling (1970) : ManÂ&#x161;s Many Voices : Language in its Cultural Context, p. 150 2 FG3? : 8P : 9H G 8 I G9?7 H VW? 2 28H 8PQ:228798H I R XP N? Q 72 T H 7OU T 7
36. Bynon, Theodora Off all sectors of language, it is the lexicon which reflects the culture of its speakers most clearly. +_ : Theodora Bynon (1977) : Historical Linguistics, p. 216 G Q N H H S 5 26 T H 9 F P ? G9?79R a 5 VW? TWN N?3 N XÂ&#x2013;
37. Campbell, Jeremy Chomsky insists that language is a omirror of the mindp +_ : Jeremy Campbell (1982) : Grammatical Man, p. 170 d I E 9 NN? 2 2 N F H 7OU o9 ? H 5 X GXp
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38. Carnap, Rudoff The fact that natural languages allow the formation of meaningless sequences of words without violating the rule of grammar , indicates that grammatical syntax is, from the logical point of view, inadequate. +_ : Rudoff Carnap (1959) : The Elimination of Metaphysics through the Logical Analysis of Language, p. 68
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39. Chomsky, Noam 1. Linguistic theory is concerned primarily with an ideal speaker-listener in a completely homogenous speech communityÂŁÂŁÂŁÂŁ. +_ : Noam Chomsky (1957) : Aspect, p.3 L N 98 8? TWNJK VW?TWN-VW?Â&#x2026;Â&#x2039; G :N 2 dKF WHG 3: 3 F TWN7OU 9 KF 7N N ?X 2. Use of language involves cognitive systems beyond grammatical and pragmatic competence. +_ : Noam Chomsky (1977) : essays, p. 3
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G X F : 75? JK N? G ? J O 4. Knowledge of language results from the interplay of initially given structures of mind, maturational processes, and interaction with the environment.
+_ : Noam Chomsky (1972) : Problems of Knowledge and Freedom, p. 26
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5. All normal humans acquire language, whereas acquisitions of even its barest rudiments is quite beyond the capacities of an otherwise intelligent ape. +_ : Noam Chomsky (1972) : Language and Mind, 2nd enlarged edition, p. 66 : O : 2 7 W? 5 7 N? dKF ? H 8 7QEI ? 8 f8 N S R X7 W? N?
6. Learning a language requires the interaction of experience with certain highly structured innate constraints on the form that languages can take. +_ : Noam Chomsky (1965) : p. 23 7 W? ? O PX Q79 P P9 H O P Q Q L7 M F N H 6 7 NdKF JW 6 9 N 2 ? ? 8? H JW ? Q O P F Q 2 QQ WO QQ5
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7. The theory of particular and universal grammar, so far as I can see, can be sensibly regarded only as that aspect of theoretical psychology that is primarily determined program that specifies the range of possible grammars for human languages and the particular realizations of this schematization that arise under given conditions. 2 75? GX5 5? T7X? L 7fT P 8P 8 J? XP G9?JH ? 8? 2 XPJE H 7OU H9 KF 5 X 2 L dKF 7 F 5? N Q O F N I H 6 7 N 7OU 6 9 N F7OU O N?G : 8P ( 6 9 N) Oe Q 7fT P H 5 5Q 2 ? FO e G ?7 EF 5 F 6 9 NG9?
8. The universal grammar is a system of principles that determines : (1) what counts as a grammar and (2) how grammars function to generate structural descriptions of sentences.
+_ : Noam Chomsky (1977) : Essays on Form and Interpretation, p. 163 8 R2E PQQ5 98 dKF N H (1) P 7 H
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9. I see no reasonable alternative to the position that grammars are internally represented in the mind. +_ : Noam Chomsky (1980) : Rules and Representations, p.86-87 5? T7X? H79R H EF F 79 : V8 7 X
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40. Clarke, David F. Learners bring with them to the learning environment a great deal of experience and knowledge, a whole set of ideational, interpersonal, and textual schemata (according to HallidayÂ&#x161;s classification), which can enrich the classroom experience and indeed determine the nature of that experience. A good teacher will exploit to the fullest extent all knowledge already available in the classroom and, to that degree at least, most syllabuses will require a certain amount of content adjustment to match the existing schemata of the learners so that their requirements can be more effectively met.
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+_ : The Negotiated syllabuses : What is it and How is it Likely to work? (Applied Linguistics, vol. 12 No. 1 , p. 18)
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42. Confucius Words are the voice of the heart. 26 TWN 2E 7 P ? 9 GX
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43. Cook, V.J. 1. Universal Grammar is not learnt but already present in the mind; language input fixes the mental grammar into one of the few permissible. 8 7 HX6 7OU ? 7 7T P WH 8? G GX5 7 5? W8 N? XP7OU 6 9 N X GXG9? WHG WO QQ F7OU O N? 7T H F WO QQ 2. The mental reality of language is shared by all human being; variation between language is limited by the properties of mind. Universal Grammar studies what human minds , and hence human languages, have in common. +_ : V.J. Cook (1988) : ChomskyÂ&#x161;s Universal Grammar : An Introduction, p. 170, 171
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44. Culicover, Peter W. The capacity for enquiring and using a language is a property that distinguishes human beings from all other species. +_ : Peter W. Culicover : Syntax (1982), introduction
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46. Czech Proverb So long as the language lives the nation lives too. 3 XP2 WH Q7 H F7
47. Darwin, Charles Languages, like organic beings, can be classed in groups under groupsÂŁÂŁ.. Dominant languages and dialects spread widely, and lead to the gradual extinction of other tonguesÂŁÂŁ Distinct languages may be crossed or blended togetherÂŁÂŁ. The survival or preservation of certain favored words in the struggle for existence is natural selection. +_ : Charles Darwin (1859) : The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, Quoted in Stam, p. 247 R79 E Q F F 3 I O J FXPX N7OU 8:H ? 8:H G9 H N? ........ F T879 E H RXP VH5 ? OX 6 G9? FN ? H W T : OG F :N.......... F W T RXPJW 6 X N O9 E H RV 8 8E 75? N? ......... WH N9 E 26 F2 Q 26 dKF P N I 7TEF WH N7OU 2 N78E 5 3
48. Descartes, Rene It is a very remarkable fact that there are none so depraved and stupid without even excepting idiots that they cannot arrange different words together, forming of them a statement by which they make known their thoughts : while, on the other hand, there is no other animal, however Linguistic Grammar Of English
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perfect and fortunately circumstanced it may be, which can do the sameÂŁÂŁ.. 7OU 2 X F H KF F2 7 H H XP H7 H T 2H 9 JX N 26 TWN 7 8? ? 7OU O P 27TEF FXPJH N2 W? K 5 7 G 5 P F H H XP QW 9 E WHG T N8? FN 2H 9 R H JXP 6 73H I N?
49. Dewey, John Thought is impossible without words. J? O X 26 7 8? 2 7 R H JXP2 N N? 50. Disraeli With words we govern men. 7 O 2 2 N 26 T:N 51. Duff, Alan The translation should reflect accurately the meaning of the original text. Nothing should be arbitrarily added or removed. +_ : Alan Duff (1989) : Translation, p. 10 O82 XP ? EF P ? 2 9 5 ? fQ Q H JW ? H 6 2 XP 7T F 7 9 E 8N GX3 Q5 VW? O8
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52. Eliot, Charle W. Our words have wings. 26 T:N5 2 7 Q N?
53. Emerson, Ralph Waldo 1. Every word was once a poem. 26 TWN H8P26 72 7OU 26 8 H I I 2. Language is the archives of history. 2E 9 XN9 79 : O P
54. Firth, J.R. Language is one 9f the manifestations of human life with the intricacies of social intercourse. +_ : J.R. Firth (1964) : The Tongues of Men and Speech.
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55. Foscolo, Ugo Che la progressione, lÂ&#x161; abbondanza e lÂ&#x161; economia del pensiero son effetti della palora. (Italian) +_ : Ugo Foscolo : Essays
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56. Fuller, Graham E. 1. Grammar is the skeletal structure that links words together and gives them full meaning. F : Graham E. Fuller (1987) : How to Learn a Foreign Language, p. 33 7OU 2 H dKF ? 26 75? ?N? 7TEF G9? 2 9 F QW
2. You can never learn to speak a foreign language, or understand it when it is spoken, unless you can learn to think in the language. 7 H XXPTWN9 E 75? GX H O P7 N? H H 2 N7OU I S N?
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3. To learn a foreign language you must get away from the idea of translating words. Translating takes too much time and mental energy. You will never learn to really speak and understand a foreign language if you have to translate everything. + : Graham E. Fuller (1987) : How to learn a Foreign language, p 30. J? XP7 W? H O P7 7 XP ? HT O82 9 5 26 7T P O8G3?7 8 8PT8 7 H FXP7 TWN9 E 75? GX H O P7 N?78 J? 7 HXP2 N O8 : H WH F6 O
57. German Proverb A word travels farther than a man. 26 TWN26 7N 7N N? H :
58. Giv0n, Talmy If language is an instrument of communication, then it is bizarre to try and understand its structure without reference to communicative setting and communicative function. +_ : Talmy Givon, (1929) : On Understanding Grammar, p.31
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J? 2E 72 EF E G EF 8? d ? R2 O8 T 8K F7 XPT 75? GX 2 ? 5 N TWNJK J F 8P9 ? F5 FG3?G EF 59. Goethe A good translation takes us a very long way. +_ : Some Quotes on Translation, edited by Dr.Gargi Gupta (1984) , p. 13 O8 FN I 6 7 O N? 8 8 60. Good, cater V. oTeachingp is 1) the act of instructing in an educational institution, 2) the act of providing activities, materials and guidance to facilitate learning in either formal and informal situation, 3) that which is taught. +_ : Cater V. Good : Dictionary of Education, 1973.
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61. Gray Thoughts that breathe and words that burn. 2 2 N7V H26 TWN7V 62. Harris, David P. All good tests possess three qualities : validity, reliability, and practicality. That is to say, any test we use must be appropriate in terms of our objectives, dependable in the evidence it provides, and applicable to our particular situation. +_ : David P. Harris : Testing English as a Second Language, 1988 (First Printing), p. 13 QQ N Q FN I O P QN? 2: Q 3 O P H O I : 2 JW ? H 6 , 2 H 73EF JE 8P2 J 6 OOe Q N? I 9 JK H QQ N Q F7 G3?XP ? 79 P G H5 X:NO P 2 TKF T N?G N? 98 8PO P : G3? Q J X6 7T P H N? 63. Harre, Rom In transformational generative linguistics acceptability relates to performance in the same way that grammaticalness relates to competence. +_ : Rom Harre and Roger Lamb (1983) : The Encyclopedic Dictionary of Psychology, MIT, p. 351
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G QQ O (O H W?XQ) Q7 F 5? Q G3? G 6 7N Q2 JW ? 98 7 F 5? Q 2 JG G3? 64. Henry, V. Notre language maternelle, nous la savious virtuellement avant que de naitre. (FRENCH) +_ : V. Henry : Antinomies Linguistiques. 7 W? H5 7 I H H 7 7 NN? dI6 O 65. Herbert Good words are worth much and cost little. 26 TWN F7T P9W 2H H ? 66. Herder Language and thought had evolved together, the one being inseparable from the other. F : Herder (1972), a German scholar, quoted in John Lyons (1982) p. 261 Q2 2 NT a T ? X H H N?
298
67. Heyse Language is reconciliation of matter and spirit, and the origin of language is the wedding of freedom and necessity. +_ : HeyseÂ&#x2014;s System of the Science of Language, quoted in Stam, p.229
68. Highet, Gilbert Translation does not usually create great works; but it often helps great works to be created. +_ : Some Quotes on Translation, edited by Dr.Gargi Gupta, (1984) p. 22
69. Hjelmslev, Louis Language is a form which may or may not have an interpretation and hence even chess and algebra should be considered as language. +_ : Louis Hjelmslev (1961) : Prolegomena to a Theory of Language
2E Â&#x2026; dKF XXP 9 E H 2 8PN I ? H9 : 8P 3 T 32 RJE H 7OU N?
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70. Hobbes Words are wise men counters. 26 TWN2E 72 7 5 VW?f8 N 71. Hockett, Clarles F. 1. Everyone, in every walk of life, is concerned with language in a practical way, for we make use of it in virtually everything we do. 2 7 : 2 H H XPO P Q 3 T P H 7 F 5? Q I I 7T 7 G3? G QXP : F F7 6 2. If I change the pronunciation of my name the law does not care, ÂŁÂŁÂŁ. , but if I change the spelling,ÂŁÂŁÂŁ. Then I must go to court to make it legitimate. And public sentiment is behind the lawyers one hundred per cent. +_ : Chares F. Hockett (1958) : A Course in Modern Linguistics, p. 1] 549 J? 5? T7X? 7O8 F 7 3EF 5 7 L9 H :H 7 F ......... H 5? T7X? 7O8 F P N3EF R ? O O 87TEF G9?JW ? 8P2 W? K 5 O 3 H WH7QEI 98 L9 H H ? 7O 7dR
3. A language universal is a feature or property shared by all language, or by all language. +_ : C.F. Hoacket : The Problem of Universal in Language.
300
8 P 85 R2E 8 P9 E 2: Q dKF : 9 E : 3 N H 72. Hooper, Joan B. The grammar is a representation of the (linguistic) knowledge that a native speaker has that enables him to produce and interpreter a potentially infinite member of utterances.
+_ : Joan B. Hooper (1976) : An Introduction to Natural Generative Phonology, p.3
2E 2 W?dKF 7X? 5 WH 8P 6 G9?75 JV8 8P 2 26 TWN X6 HX6 NG 73 T I S N?
73. Howell
Words are the soulÂ&#x161;s ambassadors.
26 TWN 2E 5
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74. Hudson, Richard
In other words, linguistics is descriptive, not prescriptive or normative.
+_ : Richard Hudson (1981) : Some Issues on which Linguists Can Agree.
O P 9 KF 8 P7OU T G3HOÂ&#x2039;
9 E O
75. Hugo, Victor
A translation in verseÂŁÂŁÂŁ seems to me something absurd, impossible.
+_ : Some Quotes on Translation, edited by Gargi Dr. Garpta, p. 20 O87OU ? ? H N?
6 9 Q5? T7X? 8? NW79 E H 7OU F H 8 8P7OU O
76. Humboldt, Wilhelm von
302
1. Language, conceived in its true essence, is something which passes away constantly and in every momentÂŁÂŁÂŁ. Language itself is not a work (ergon), but an activity (eneglia). +_ : Wilhelm von Humboidt (1903) : p. 45-46 7 EF 8K S 8? R2E Q F Q H dKF 7 N5KI I WH N Q O : 5 P ......... (7T P) G 5 7 HG3H (ergon) H7OU X (eneglia)
2. The structure diversity of language (their inner form) is the product of a universally operative and specifically human faculty of the mind. F : Wilhelm von Humboldt (1982), quoted in John Lyons, p. 304 F ( WO QQ8K S G ) 2 ? 98 98 I 7OU V8 X J P 6 5 X : N 7fT PdKF Oe Q H H 5 Q75 X6 N 3. All translation seems to be simply an attempt to accomplish an impossible task. O8 : 3 NNW79 E XP7OU 7T 2 T 6 G F F QXP7OU O H N?
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4. A translation cannot and should not be a commentary. When ht original merely hints and is obscure, the translator has no right to give the next an arbitrary clarity. F : Some Quotes on Translation, edited by Dr. Gargi Gupta, (1984) p. 14 O8 HG3H 8P H2 XP7OU J J 9 ? fQ Q7T H3 I P9 E 28: 72 E H3 N7X O8 H FXP 6 G9? 3 N7X H X GX
77. Hume, David Nothing is more common than for philosophers to encroach upon the province of grammarians, and to engage in dispute of words, while they image that they are handling controversies of deepest importance and concern. +_ : David Hume, An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals, Appendix 7OU 7 EF N F O 3 XP75? O :H H G X 5 8P P78 P 7 EF 26 TWN G 5 P F N T98 7 H 6 8 X N Q5? 5 N ? F 6 2 8P H 7OU 9H
304
78. Hymes, D.H. It is ÂŁÂŁÂŁ.. something of a contradiction, an irony at least, that we have today a general linguistics that justifies itself in terms of understanding the distinctiveness of man, but has nothing to say, as linguistics, of human life. The voice is the voice of HUMANISM, of a RATIONAL IDEALISM; the land, one fears, is the hand of MECHANISM.
+_ :
D.H. Hymes (1977) : Foundations in Sociolinguistics : An
Ethnographic approach, p 147
2E ........
Q F Q H dKF 5 N ?
9 E H ? F :N R7OU O P3N
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( R79 E Q H )
7OU 7 5 8 : 5 :N 2 F 79 :V8 H 7OU 7 EI E 5 X 8 79. Italian Proverb Traduttors traditore (Italian) O82E O8 ( 78 F ) Linguistic Grammar Of English
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80. Jacobson, R. Language must be investigated in all the variety of its functions. +_ : R. Jacobson (1960) oClosing Statement : Linguistic and Poeticsp in Seboek (ed.), Style in Language, Cambridge, MA : MIT Press, p. 353 XP ? N? Q X Q9 ? FG : S H : 81. Jespersen. Ottp 1. The essence of language is human activity-activity on the part of that other to understand what was in the mind of the first. +_ : Otto Jesjpersen (1924) : Philosophy of Grammar. 9 GX5 2E X 5 :
2 W? K 5 2 9 KF
X F2 9 KF 6 7TEF FXP75? GX
2. The genesis of language is not to be sought in the prosaic but in the poetic side of life : the source of speech is not gloomy seriousness, but merely play and youthful hilarityÂŁ.. Language was born in the courting days of mankind. Otto Jesperson (1921) +_ : Geore Yule (1985) : The Study of Language : An Introduction, p. 1
306
7 H2 9 98H 6 7 N 9H X 2 98 98 HX 9 X Q F7 F Q3 : F 9H 26 TWN G3H2 72 H 5 K 7 ? ? H7OU 2 EF 7 : 8P2 N3EF 5 VW?7 ................ JE 6 7 N 5KI G F9 :H 7 F X Q 82. Job 6 : 25 How forcible are the right words! 26 TWN F 6 G3? H JW ? H T8
83. Johnson, Samuel 1. To our language may be with great justness applied the observation of Quintilian that speech was not formed by an analogy sent from heaven. It did not descend to us in a state of uniformity and perfection, but was produced by necessity and enlarged by accident, and is therefore composed of dissimilar parts, thrown together by negligence, by affectation , by learning, or by ignorance. Samuel Johnson (1747) +_ : George Yule (1985) : The Study of Language : An Introduction, p. 59
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5? 7 5 2 78 F F XXP 6 O P : G3? Q 5 7 N?7OU H N G H F H 26 TWN N?JW ? 5KI X 26 :O F 2 H 26 TWN N? JW H 8 G9?7 G T F 2 7OU 9 KF 7N QW QQ H JW ? 5KI X 2 X6 7OU 8P5 H O7T P79 : Q 7 N I XK O P Q ON? H F H 8 7OU H F WH7T P2 7V8 78 7T P2 G2 H7 R NW7T P 7 W? 8P7T P2 H W? 2. Language is a dress of thought. 2E 5 2 2 N 3. Words are the signs of ideas. 26 TWN 2E 72 EF 9 EF 2 2 N Poetry, Sir, cannot be translated. +_ : Some Quotes on Translation, edited by Dr. Gargi Gupta, 1984, p. 14 H F72 T f 8 X O8 N? 84. Joos, M. Languages differ from one another without limit and in unpredictable ways. +_ : M. Joos (1966) : Readings in Linguistics I, p. 228 I O H H N 5? X6 N 8P H G J F H X 6 N?78 (Joos TWN2 N2? L Universal Grammar 5 Chomsky) 308
85. Katz, Jerrold J. ÂŁÂŁÂŁÂŁ the formal rules of linguistics theory must represent the real relations in language that underlie their connection of sound and meaning, and they must be open to empirical verification in terms of facts that come to light in the linguisticsÂ&#x161; field work.
+_ : Jerrold J, Katz (1971) : Linguistic Philosophy, p. 184 L7 M 5 L XP ? N G9?79R 2 T ?X G dKF dH 8K WHG 2 T P9 H 8P2 9 8P L7 M
798H I XP ? 7OÂ&#x201E;N G9? T WX 2 X N? 79 :V8 N 5? 7 RXX F N?X Oe Q 5
86. King Rama IV Knowing Thai Language very well without knowing English at all will be very frustrating. Because thousands of foreign textbooks are in English. Therefore, to study various subjects at present one has to depend on English. +_ : King Rama IV (1891) : in Ratchakitchanubeksa, vol. 7 : p. 24
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W? 7OU H N H H W? 78 R HXP 6 G9? KNN N5 NGX 7T P 6 H O P7 98 T 78H 75 7OU 7T PfP I XP 7 T 3 H S 7 R ? (NWT P 3N6 G 9 ? .......... O P Q) 87. Kipling, Rudyard Words are the most powerful drug used by mankind. 26 TWN 2E 7 T N T8 F : G3? 88. Krashen, S.D. 1. While child-adult differences in second-language acquisition potential do exist, the evidence for a biological barrier to successful adult acquisition is lacking. On the contrary, there is abundant reason to maintain that adult are still able to acquire language naturally to a great extent. +_ : S.D. Krashen (1981) Second-Language Acquisition and Second Language Learning, p. 81 ? H XP 5? H G N? T 7 W? 8P75? JK F P9 H 7NR QVW?G9 H H98 F E H VW?G9 H :O 2 N? TG 7 W? HO e G 5? 79 :V8 Q : H VW?G9 H 2 J FXP N?7 W? ( F ) H 7OU 3 G PN Q9 KF
310
2. Language is best taught when it is being used to transmit messages, not when it is explicitly taught for conscious learning. (The Great Paradox of Language Teaching) +_ : Stephen D. Krashen (1888) The Natural Approach : Language Acquisition in the
Classroom, p. 55
7 XP N?N F :N 7 EF I JW 6 G3?7TEF H 5? 2 EF HG3H 7 EF JW Q 7TEF G9?7 N 7 W? H X GX
89. Kress, G. Learning language is learning to mean. +_ : G. Kress (ed.) (1976) Halliday : System and Function in Language, p. 8 7 W? 2E 7 W?7TEF EF 8P75? GX2 9
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90. Lado Robert 1. The theory of foreign language testing is based on present linguistic understanding of language and on observations concerning the role of habit in learning a foreign language.
L N Q9 E NV8 H O P7 5KI WH Q2 75? GX 73
8P5KI WH Q 7 G H F7 F Q G 7 H O P7 2. What the student has to learn constitute the corpus of what we have to test. Since the student has to learn language, it is the language that we must test. +_ : Robert Lado (1972) Language Testing : The Construction and Use of Foreign Language Tests, p. 20, 22 F F K ? 7 2E 2 T T ( 2 ) 5 F F2 W ? N Q NV8 7 EF X K 7 7T PfP I F F7 ? N Q R2E F 7 91. Leekpai, Chuan
312
It (=the advertisements) made me think that our country was a colony of some foreign country. +_ : The Nation Junior Magazine, vol. 2 , no. 43, May 15-31, 1999, p. 31 OÂ? ÂŹ H S 6 G9?5? T7X? 2 N H O P7 3 5 7 8 7OU 7 E 5KI 5 H O P7 O 8? 9 E 92. Lenin Language is the most important means of human intercourse. Unity and unimpeded development of language are the most important conditions for genuinely free and extensive commerce on a scale commensurate with modern capitalism. +_ : Lenin : The Right of Nations to Self Determination, vol. 20, p. 369 7OU 6 2 F G N H EF 5 :
7 T 8P T a F HJW 5 NX 9 P5 7OU 7 EF 5 F 6 2 F :N 6 9 Q T 3 F7OU P H ?X 8P ? 5 N V8 W :N7OU : G9 H
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93. Lenneberg, Eric H. ÂŁÂŁÂŁ.. the discovery and description of innate mechanisms is a thoroughly empirical procedure and is an integral part of modern scientific inquiry +_ : Eric H. Lenneberg (1967) : Biological Foundatons of Language, p. 393-394 2? TQ 8P Q JK 72 EF E 7OU 2: 8 P N H 6 7 N7OU 5Q F 79 : V8 H F 8P7OU H 6 2 5 EQ2? G9 H 94. Lewis, C.S. 1. Language is an instrument of communication. The language which can with the greatest ease make the finest and most numerous distinctions of meaning is the best. +_ : C.S. Lewis, Study in Words. 2E 72 EF E EF H 9 KF dKF G3? PN F :N 8P 2 9 3 N X? F :N2E FN F :N 2. oWhen I use a word,p Humpty Dumpty said in a rather scornful tone, oit seems what I choose it to mean t neither more nor lessp. +_ : Lewis Carroll : Through the Looking Glass, quoted in Palmer (1976) : Semantics : A new Outline, p. 4
314
o7 EF 5? T7X? G3?26 TWNGN26 TWN9 KF p Â&#x2018; T I N T I TWNG 73 N N N S , o R 2 9 7 H Q F5? T7X? ? F 98P t H R H ? p 95. Locke, John Significant words denote not things, but ideas, which are mental entities. +_ : John Locke : An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, Book III, oOf Wordsp 26 TWN F 6 2 N? N JK F 5 H N JK 2 2 NdKF 7OU 2: 8 P 5 X GX 96. Lyons, John
1. Language t variation in the individual and language t variation in the community are two sides of the same coin. 2 H G G3? 5 Q:228 3: 3 2E F 7N H N? 2 N?
8P2 H G G3? 5
2. Language t system are productive, in the sense that they allow for the construction and comprehension of indefinitely many utterances that have never previously occurred in the experience of any of their users.
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PQQ 7OU F ? 2
G H F H 7OÂ&#x201E;N G9? ? 8P2 75? GX26 TWN X Q HJ? dKF H72 7 N5KI G O P Q 5 VW?G3? H 78 3. Chomsky has done more than anyone else to demonstrate the sterility of the behavioristsÂ&#x161; theory of language. +_ : John Lyons (1982) : Language and Linguistics : An Introduction, p. 229, 230, 274 d I N G9?7 79R JK 2 ?O P 3 5 L T H G2 S I 9 N 97. Martin, Johnny Language is a wonderful thing. It can be used to express our thoughts, to conceal our thoughts, or to replace thinking. +_ : A Treasury of Humour and Satire (edited by) M.S. Choubey 1977, p. 64 7OU F 7 7 G3? N 2 2 N O OÂ&#x201E;N2 2 N 8P F2 2 N N? 98. Meyers, E. Walter As far as is known, any thing that can be said in one dialect or language can be said in another dialect or language. There are no untranslatable concepts.
316
+_ : Walter E. Meyers (1974) : Handbook of Contemporary English, p. 354
7 H F7 Q F GN R F JTWNG 9 KF N? H TWNG 9 KF N?73H 7N 7T P H 2 2 NGN F O82 9 H N?
99. Matthews, P.H. We have plenty of our own problems to mind. And if we mind those we will rediscover the genuine virtues of generative grammar. +_ : P.H. Matthews (1979) : Generative Grammar and Kinguistic Competence, p. 106 7 OÂ&#x2039; 9 7 P P FXP ? 75? GX 8PJ? 7 XP ? G HGX8P R 7 XP X2? O P 3 F ?X 5 ( H W?XQ)
100. Montaigne La plupart des occasions des troubles du monde sont grammariennes. +_ : Montaigne : Essays (French) 2 :H I 8G 8 I 8? 79 : X 98 I I
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101. Morley, Chrestopher Life is a foreign language : all men mispronounce it. +_ : A Treasury of Humour and satire (edited by) M.S Choubey, 1977, p. 70 3 R79 E H N? : 2 7 V N 9 N 102. Muller, Max 1. There is hardly a language that in some sense may not be called a mixed language. No nation or tribe was ever so completely isolated as not to admit a certain number of foreign words. +_ : Max Muller , quoted in the preface of A Dictionary in Assamese and English, compiled by M. Bronson (1983) p.(i)-(ii) QXP H GN78 F H7 H 7OU V H 3 9 H 7VH 9 F 7 H 7NRN5 NX H Q7 26 X EF S OPO Q 5 7 (Max Muller 7OU VW?9 KF F2 N2? L 7 F Q 5 Charles Dawin) 2.
No reason without language. No language without reason Language-the barrier between Man and Beast Language-the
Rubicon, and No brut will dare to cross it.
318
H 79 :J? O X H J? O X 79 :V8 7OU 7 ? I P9 H 2 Q
7OU PT ? 9? 8P H GNXP 8? 5?
103. Napolein We rule men with words. 7 O 2 2 N? 26 TWN 104. Nicholas of Cusa Words are the products of our minds and our minds depend, for all their knowledge, on the experiences of our senses. These senses are sometimes not reliable; one incident that has been seen by many people may be explained in different ways. +_ : Nicholas of Cusa : Learned Ignorance 26 TWN2E V8V8 5 X GX dKF 2 W? I 85KI WH QO P V 9 KF O P V 798H I R ?GX H2H XP N? G Q 2 I 7T P79 : H 7N XXP O2 8P H 8P Q 2 8P QQ
105. OÂ&#x2014; Connor, J.D. What we call othe vocal organsp or othe organs of speechp ÂŁÂŁ.. are not primarily organs of speech at all. +_ : J.D. OÂ&#x2014;Connor (1973) : Phonetics, p. 22 Linguistic Grammar Of English
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F F7 7 H o PV8 7 p 9 E o P 9H 26 TWNp .......... ?X 8? G3H P 9H 26 TWN78 106. Osgood, Charles E. The meaning of a word in ordinary speech is influenced by the context of other words with which it occurs. +_ : Charles E. Osgood (1976) : Focus on Meaning 2 9 5 26 TWNG TWN N H N? Q T8X Q Q 5 26 EF S F7 N5KI N?
107. Partridge, Eric
Language is everybodyÂ&#x161;s business, and enters into almost every part of human life. Yet it is all too often misused : directedness and clarity disappear in a whirl of clichĂŠÂ&#x161;s, euphemisms, and wooliness of expression. +_ : Eric Partidge (1984) : Usage and Abusage (back cover) 7OU : X5 : S 2 8P75? T T Q3 5 2 7 G : S 7 EF ? P I 7 R G3? V N S : G3?G9? X:N 8P2 3 N7X N? W 9 OG 9H 26 TWNTEI S : P, 8P2 Â&#x2026;:Â&#x2030; 7Â&#x2026;Â&#x17D; G G3?26 TWN
320
108. Pearl, Anita Language is only effective when it can express the feelings and ideas of a people with immediacy and precision. +_ : Anita Pearl (1980) : The Jonathan David Dictionary of Popular Slang XP N?3EF H O P T R H 7 EF J N Q 2 W? K 8P2 K 2 N S 5 3 8:H 9 KF N?N? 2 N7 R 8P P N N
109. Perlmutter, David M. The best way to learn syntax is not simply to study it, but to do it. +_ : David M. Perlmutter (1979) , CASE 7 3 2 ? (d ) FN F :N 2E 8 E Oe Q
110. Polsky Bernard 1. Language learners may aim to achieve various degrees of controls of a language for communicative purposes. +_ : Polsky Bernard (1990) : Conditions for Second Language Learning, (Condition 15) VW?7 W? X I 7OÂ? 9 FXPQ 8: PN Q 2 Q2 G3? 7TEF X:NO P 2 G EF H O (Condition 15)
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2. Knowledge of the language involves control of ane or more integrated functional skills. (Condition 17) 2 W? N? VW T 7 F 5? Q 2 Q2: P G3? QQ V V
3. The younger one starts to learn language, the better chance one has to develop a native-like pronunciation. (Condition 23) J 7 7 F 7 F 2 H : ? FXPTWN N?79 E 7X? 5 F
4.
The closer two languages are to each other genetically and
typologically, the quicker a speaker of one will learn the other. (Condition 34) F J? 2 2 7 F T N? ? 6 7 N 8P8 P FXP7 W? GN 9 KF X 2 F 5KI
5. Learning a language involves an opportunity for the new skills to be practiced ; the result is fluency. (Condition 62)
322
7 W? 9 JK FXP N?Â&#x2C6;Â&#x160; PG9 H XP 6 O WH2 28H 28H 36 36 6. The language is being used so that it can be learned. (Condition 64) JW 6 G3?7TEF G9?7 N 7 W? 7. In formal language learning situations, multiple opportunities to observe and practice the new language can be provided. The more these match other relevant conditions (the learner, the goals, the situation), the more efficient the learning will be. (Condition 74) G J 7 W? QQ72 H 2 N7OU VW ? ? G9? VW?7 7 8PÂ&#x2C6;Â&#x160; G3? F 79 P Q7 EF 5 F7 F 5? EF S (73H VW?7 , 7OÂ? 9 7 , 8P J ) 7 H GN 7 RXP F O P T 7 H I
111. Quasimodo Poets can be translate but it is impossible to translate the writings of academicians. +_ : Some Quotes on Translation, edited by Dr. Gargi Cupta, 1984, p. 26 2 2 N5 T OQ N? H 75 5 3 I O8 Linguistic Grammar Of English
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112. Queneau, Raymond Les gemissements de la douleur, les plaints de la souffrance sont a 1Â&#x161; origin du langage (French) +_ : Raymond Queneau : Une Histoire Modele 7 2 2 9H 2 : 5 7 ? 9H 2 7XRQO N F 98P2E 79 ? F 9H
113. Quine, W.V. A theory of mind can gain clarity and substance, I think, from a better understanding of the workings of language. +_ : W.V. Quine (1977) : Mind and Verbal Disposition. 5? T7X? 2 N H X L JXP N? Q2 XH PXH 8P H X 2 75? GX N H 6 5
114. Quintilian GrammaticalÂŁ.. necessary pueris, incunda senibus, dulcis secretorum comes, et quae vel sola in omni studiorum genere plus habeat operas quam ostentationis (LATIN) +_ : Quintilian : Institutiones Oratoriae.
324
2E 2 X6 7OU 6 9 Q7NR , 7OU 98H T VH 6 9 Q2 H 7OU 7TEF VW? H 6 9 Q2 7N N 8P7 E QXP7OU F 7N G 98 S F F7 K dKF O P 3 H
115. Quirk, Randoff Language is the most important attribute of humanity. Without language we wouldnÂ&#x161;t be out of the trees. 7OU 2: Q F 6 2 F :N5 : 3 9 H 7 8? 7 R2 XP P NN WHQ ? ?79 E H H 116. Ramanujank, A.K. Language is the ouniversal whorep we are constantly trying to convert into a ovirginp ! F : Ramanujan, A.K. (1983) PAN, NOV., vol. XXIV, No. 11, p. 33 7OU o p 8 FT 7 T XPO8: O8I6 6 G9? 8 7OU o T 9 X p 117. Richards, Thomas J. Human are not unique only in having such powerful, flexible and creative languages. Anther very important aspect in which we are unique is our tremendous ability to accumulate knowledge, and to acquire skills. +_ : Thomas J. Richards (1978) : The language of Reason, p.1
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: 7OU 9 KF H7T H T8 EN9 :H N? 8P 2 ? 2 7 H I F 6 2 O P 9 KF dKF : 7OU 9 KF R2E 2 J X6 N FXP F 2 W? 8P7 P 9 2 36 36
118. Ryle, Gilbert
Word-meanings do not stand to sentence-meanings as atoms to molecules or as letters of the alphabet to the spelling of words, but more nearly as the tennis racket stands to the stroke which are or may be made with it. +_ : Gilbert Ryle : The Theory of Meaning 2 9 5 26 N? T Q2 9 5 O P 2 G 6 7N Q P T Q 78 :8 9 E N 73H T Q P N26 H 79 E Q ? 7 2 T Q 8W 7 7 H
119. Sapir, Edward Language is the purely human noninstinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of a system of voluntarily produced symbols. It is a product of the society. +_ :Edward Sapir (1921):Language:An Introduction to the Study of Speech, p.8 326
2E EF 2 2 N 8P2 O J 5 : F ?X 8PO X 3 N G3? PQQ F 8 dKF V8 5KI N 2 2 GX XK 7OU V8V8 5 2 120. Saussure, Ferdinald De Pris dans son tout, le language est multiforme at heteroclite ; ÂŁÂŁÂŁ ; it ne se laisse classer dans aucune categorie des faits humains, parce quÂ&#x161;on ne sait comment degager son unit (French) +_ : Ferdinald De Saussure : Cours de lingustique Generale (Introdicion) J? XPJE 7 H 9 KF G3?V N V H 8P 98 WO QQ F N? 9 2 H XP P X X N O P Q 5 : 7T P :
H W? H XP 7 T5 I N? H
121. Schane, Sanford A. Because language has structure and follows orulep, the linguist, as an investigator of language, needs a notation for describing what he wants to talk about. But notation, the formalism, the theory can only evolve from actual data. + _ : Sanford A. Sachane (1973) : Generative Phonology, p.121
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7T P79 : F H 2 ? 8P72 T o Lp G P7OU VW? H X6 ? 72 EF E 6 9 Q Q F F 7 ? XPTWNJK H 72 EF E (9 E 8 ) RN WO QQ RN L RN XP ? a X 5? W8 JW ?
122. Schleicher Languages are natural organism, which unregulated by the will of man, arise according to certain laws, grow and develop, and then become old and die out. +_ : Schleicher, quoted in Stam (1976) p. 240 7OU 2 T T 3 N?JW 2 Q2: N 7X X6 5 :
7 N5KI L7 M Q H 7X 7 Q 8PT a 8P 8? R H2 F6 2 H OG F :N 123. Schhopenhauer, Arthur One difficulty in translation is that a word in one language seldom has a precise equivalent in another one. +_ : Some Quotes on Translation, edited by Dr. Gergi Cupta, 1984, p. 18 2 :H G O8O P 9 KF R2E 26 G 9 KF XP H 7 Q F 79 E G 9 KF
328
124. Seldon 1. Language ! The blood of the soul! 2E 78E N7 I 8P
2. Syllables govern the world. T 2 9H 26 TWN2E 7X? 8 125. Stam, James H. 1. Speaking languages, considered subjectively, is externalization of the inward, presentation and expression of that which goes on inside of men. Language, considered objectively, is the means for the externalization of the inward. G H J: TWN R2E 7V 2 G GX N 8P 2 W? K 5 F dKF WHG 2 7 G H5 J: R2E 72 EF E 6 9 Q7V Q 2 G GX5 2 7 F 7
2. Language is perpetual birth, emanation, creation, genesis-not the one time invention of a static product. 7 N VH5 ? 7 8P X:N7 F ? F7OU N G3H 7OU V8V8 2 I 7N F H 9 3. Language is not a thing like gunpowder, but an event, like an explosion; it is not an organ, like the eye or ear, but an ability and activity, like seeing and hearing.
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G3H F 5 73H N OÂ&#x17D; H 7OU 79 : 73H 7N Q P7Q N G3H7OU P 73H 9 E 9W H 7OU 2 J 8P X 73H 7N Q 79R 8P N? 4. Language, however , does not speak itself, it does not lead on independent existence, but is an organon which serves the spirit. +_ : Janes H. Stam (1976) : Inquiries into the origin of Language: The Fate of a Question, p. 183 , 229, 230-231 H R N?TWN7 ( JW 7 TWN) ; N?N6 7 3 7OU P H H 7OU :O (organon) 6 9 Q QG3?X
5 2 7 126. Solan, L. The theory of linguistic universals, then, is an empirical theory, subject to revision on the basis of new evidence and new insight. +_ : L. Solan (1983) : Pronominal Reference : Child language and the Theory of Grammar, p. 81 N I L 8 R7OU L 9H 79 :V8dKF 5KI WH Q ? 5 7O8 F O8 Q TEI 9H 98 8P 2? TQ H G9 H 127. Sturtevant Language must have been invented for the purpose of lying! +_ : Sturtevant (1947) , p. 48 2 XPJW ? 5KI 7TEF G3? 9 !
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128. Trandelenburg, A If Aristotle had spoken Chinese or Dakotan, rather than Creek, the categories of Aristotle logic would have been radically different. +_ : A. Trendelenburg, the German Classicist and Philosopher, quoted in John Lyons (1982) p. 239
J? 9 7 8TWN X 9 E N FXP7OU PN Q3 I 5 QQ 7 8 R2 XP H OX F7OU WH I H 9 ? E 7OU 98 E 129. Tyler A good translation must be able to discover at once the true character of his authorÂ&#x161;s style. +_ : Some Quotes on Translation, edited by Dr. Gargi Cupta, 1984, p. 19 O8 FN XP ? 7O8E 8 P F ?X 7OU QQfQ QG 75 5 VW?75 N? 130. Ullman, S. Stylistics is concerned with the expressive and evocative values of language. +_ : S. Ullman (1964) : Language and Style, p. 9
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X ( 9H G3?26 TWN) 2 W? K d QdKI 8PO P QGX
7 F 5? Q2: 2H 5 G H
131. Verma, S.K. 1. Language, being a human phenomenon, has some oResidual vaguenessp about it 7 EF X 7OU O e F T Q :
98 798E WHQ?
XK 2 28: 72 E
2. The translation is visualized as a member of two speech communities. +_ : Verma, S.K. (1989) : Modern Linguistics, p. 366, 370 O8 2E VW? W?VW?75? GX 8P EF N?G ( H ? ) 2 132. Voice of America Language is ever changing , to accommodate the evolution of the culture it represents. New usages appear almost daily, but enter the dictionary many years later! +_ : VOA (1984) 7O8 F O8 WH7 I I R7TEF FXP :? Q a 5 a F I S 26 G9 H7 N5KI QXP : HXPO e WHG TX : 98 X I 98 O[
133. Webster, Noah
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1. Language is the immediate gift of god. 2E 83 I FT P7X? O P 2. As an independent nation, our honor requires us to have a system of our own, in language as well as in government. +_ : Reader Digest (1983) : Success with Words : A Guide to the American Language, p. 30
G P F7OU O P7 F 7 3 7 N ÂĄ 5 7 I WH Q F7 PQQ7OU 5 7 H H XP7OU PQQ5 9 E PQQ5 Q 8
134. Welch, Cyril Language has to serve human needs : it has to evidence its humanity. If it does not, there will be no one to speak and no one to listen. +_ : Cyril Welch, (1973), The Sense of Language, p. 89 XP ? QG3?2 ? 5 : : XP ? N 2 7OU :
G9?O PX X? J? H7OU N I XP R H G2 T:N 8PXP H G2 Â&#x2026;Â&#x2039;
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135. Whitehead, A.N. Philosophic truth is to be sought in the presuppositions of language rather than in the expressed statements. +_ : A.N. Whitehead : Modes of Thought O 3 XXP XP ? 2? 9 X 2 9 dH Â&#x2C6; 5 H FXP O9 X 26 TWN FJW N
136. Witgenstein, Ludwin 1. Language disguises thought. So much so that from the outward form of the clothing it is impossible to infer the form of the thought beneath it , because the outward form of the clothing is not designed to reveal the form of the body, but for entirely different purposes. 7OU dH 2 2 N X WO H 5 7 EI V? 7 H W? N?78 H P 2E 2 2 N FdH WH G I I R7T P WO H 5 7 EI V? G3H ?7TEF 7OÂ&#x201E;N7V WO QQ H H ?7TEF X:NO P 2 EF S F H O N I 73 2. Die Grenzen meiner Sprache bedeuten die Grenzen meiner Welt. +_ : Ludwig Witgenstein (1922) : Tractates Logico-Philosophicus, p.6163
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2 X6 N5 5? T7X? N?
9 JK 2 X6 N 9H 26 TWN5 5? T7X?
3. Grammar tells what kind of object anything is. +_ : Ludwig Witgenstein : Philosophical Investigation, p.373 Q 7 H F I 2E P
137. Wordsworth Choice word and measure phrase above the reach of ordinary men. X 78E 26 TWN 8P N 8 WH79 E 8 5 2 N 138. Yalden, Janice 1. Psycholinguistic research suggests that in the child, learning a second language appears to be accomplished in much the same way as acquiring the first. Exposure to language data equal acquisition, and no additional mediating or modifying system operates. X N? X P H 6 9 Q7NR 8? 7 W? F N6 7 OG 7N Q 7 W? F9 KF ( H) 7OÂ&#x201E;N Q 5? W8 7 H Q N?7 W? HX6 7OU ? PQQ 8H7 8 F 9 E O Q5 GN S 7T F
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2. The applied linguists is concerned not any with what is to be taught and how it is to be ordered, but also with the realization of the syllabus in the form of teaching materials such as textbooks, exercises, tapes, filmstrips and so on.
+_ : Janice Yalden (1985) : The Communicative Syllabus : Evolution, Design and Implementation, p. 15, 95 O P : H N? GX7 F 5? 7T H XP P 9 E X N86 N Q H H H75? GX98 W F WHG WO5 7 O P Q 73H 6 7 QQÂ&#x2C6;Â&#x160; 9 N 7 O VH Â&#x2026;Â&#x201E;8 8P EF S F7 F 5? N?
139. To translate is to change into another language, retaining as much of the sense as one can, for some of the original effect is almost always lost, the least will be lost in the translation of language which represents more or less objective (or scientific experience), the most in translating language which represents experience of more subjective (or artistic) kind. ( A.H. Smith) O82E 7O8 F 9 KF WH 9 KF F ?dKF 2 9 5 26 G9? 7 H F 9 KF J N? 6 9 QV8N I 7N Q H 7 E QXPJW 6 G9?7 O 7 H ? F :NXPJW 6 G9? W 7 G O8 dKF N G9?79R J:O P 2
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H 9 E ? H (9 E O P Q 7 F Q ),
H G9 HG
O8 dKF N G9?79R O P Q 5 WO QQ7 F Q H (9 E 7 F Q )
140. To translate is to change into another language retaining the sense. (Samuel Johnson) O82E 7O8 F 9 KF WH 9 KF F ?dKF 2 9 5 26
141. A good translation takes us a very long way. ( Goethe) O8 FN 6 T 7 WH P P F 8
142. Let the critic first find out what it is to translate elegant poems without adding or taking away. (Fray Ponce De Leon) F G9? X 2? TQ H P F 7OU O8Q F N N O X 7T F 9 E 6 O 143. A prose translation of a lyric is the most absurd of all such ventures and that none but a poet should translate a poem.( Lord Woodhousele)
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O8 ? ? 5 Q 2 W ? K 5 VW? H 7OU 2 798 98 F :N5 ? H 8P H P 7 H I H 2 O8Q
144. Translating consists in producing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent to the message of the source language, first in meaning and second in style. (Nida) O8O P QN? ? Q F 6 2 H 7OU 3 H G 8?3 N F :N Q5? 2 5 98H 5? W8 , H G 2 9 8P H F G 8 P
145. The action or process of turning from one language into another, also the product of this, a version in a different language. (Oxford English Dictionary) P 6 9 E PQ 8 QX 9 KF WH EF S , N? ? I , 7 3 F G F H
146. Poetry Sir, can not be translated. (Samuel Johnson) G ?7 ? Q , H JJW O8 N?
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147. A translator is to be like his author, it is not his business to excel him. (Samuel Johnson) O87OU 7OU 79 E VW?O PT 5 75 , HG3H : X5 75 F79 E H 75
148. All translating seems to be simply an attempt to accomplish an impossible task (Wilhelm Humboldt) NW79 E H O8 I 9 N7OU 2 T H H S FXP 6 G9?3 I F7OU O H N?G9? 6 7 RX
149. A translation can not and should not be a commentary. When the original merely hints and is obscure, the translator has no right to give the text an arbitrary clarity. (Wilhelm Humbodt) O8 H J 8P H2 7OU X
7 EF ? fQ Q7OU Q GQ?7T
7 H I 8P7OU F F28: 72 E , O8 H 6 G9?9 E 3 N7X 6 7 GX
150. Nothing which is harmonized by the bond of the Muses can be changed from its own to another language without destroying all its sweetness.( Dante) H P FJW 6 G9? 8 8E N 5? VW N5 Muses JJW 7O8 F O8 X 5 7 WH EF N O X 6 8 2 T7 P5 I 9 N
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151. What men like you.... call fidelity in translation, the learned term pestilent minuteness.... It is hard to preserve in a translation the charm of expressions which in another language are most felicitous...... If render word for word, the result will sound uncouth and if compelled by necessity I alter anything in order or wording, I shall seem to have departed from the function of a translator. (Cicero) F F2 X6 79 E 2: ......7 ? 2 dEF G O8
26 T F N?
7 2 8P7 N8 6 G9? H 6 2 .... 7OU 7 EF FXP 7 H9 O8 5 N 2 W? K dKF G EF H 7OU J? 26 9 E 6 F79 P ...... J? J N2 T H T , V88 T XPÂ&#x2026;Â&#x2039; NW H7OU F Q 8PJ? JW Q QQ 2 Q N 2 X6 7OU f XPO Q7O8 F Q F G 26 F 9 E G3?26 , f XPNW79 E H N? 7Q F 7Q X 9 ? F5 O8
152. I did not translate them as an interpreter but as an orator ......not......word for word but I preserved the general style and force of the language.( Cicero) f H N? O8T 7OU 8H H7OU 8H 26 O ..... HG3H.....26 T H 26 T Hf N? 8 P 8P T8 F O5
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153. A good translation.......that in which the merit of the original work is so completely transfused into another language, as to be as distinctly apprehended and as strongly felt by a native of the country to which that language belongs, as it is by those who speak the language of the original work. (Tytler) O8 FN. ........... dKF 7OU 2 N 78 5 ? fQ QJW 7O8 F JH H QW WH EF S 7OU 75H N? F FJ W 6 G9?75? GX H 3 N7X 8P7OU F FJW 6 G9? W? K H : N O P7 7X? 5 dKF T 75 7OU 7X? 5 ,
5 P F 7OU
N 75 9798H I VW?dKF TWN 5 ? fQ Q
154. An ordinary translator sinks under the energy of his original; the man of genius frequently rises above it. (Tytler) O8 F S O 6 G9?2 3 3 5 ? fQ Q5 75 7 EF 8 ; 2 F7OU Xf P7 3 P N?7 S
155. Universal theories of translation are three-(a) that the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work, (b) that the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the
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original, (c) that the translation should have all the ease of original composition.(Tytler) L 8X 85 O87OU 3 H . F 2E O82 G9?fQ Q2 N8 F QW 5 2 2 N5 ? fQ Q 5. F 8 P7fT P 8P 5 75 2 7OU F F 8 P7fT P F79 E Q ? fQ Q I , 2. F 2E O82 2 H 5 ? f Q I 9 N
156. Where the sense of an author is doubtful and where more than one meaning can be given to the same passage or expression, the translator is called upon to exercise his judgment and to select that meaning which is not consonant to the train of thought in the whole passage or to the authorÂ&#x161;s usual mode of thinking and of expressing himself. To intimate the obscurity or ambiguity of the original is a fault, and still a greater to give more than one meaning.( Tytler) F F2 W? K 8 S (sense) 5 VW?O PT 7OU 7 EF F H 8P F F H 2 9 9 KF JJW 6 9 NG9?5? 75 F79 E 9 E N ,
O8JW 7 G9?N6 7 N 5 75 8P78E 2 9 I dKF 7OU F F H N28? Q Â&#x2C6;Â&#x160; 2 2 NG 5? 75 I 9 N9 E 5 2 2 NO 5 O PT 8P 5 N 5 75 7
342
N 7OU 5 2
28: 72 E 8P2 6 5 ? fQ Q7OU 2 V NT8 N,
8P V NT8 N F H
G9?2 9 H 9 KF 2 9
157. Three types of translation: (1) Grammatical-designates the usual type, which demands much learning, few abilities. (2) Modified--demands supreme poetic power, otherwise travesty results.... (3) Mythical-are translations in the highest sense, which give not only the actual work of art but also its ideal picture. (Novalis) O8 3 3 N : 1. 3 NO F N? 6 9 NG9?7 F Q , dKF ? 7 W? 5KI , 2 J78R ? 2. FJW N N O8 ÂŽ2 ? T8 7 F Q Q F 6 2 F :N, H 9 KF 78 QQV8 F ..... 3. F7 F Q O O --7OU O8G 7d F W F :N,
dKF H N?G9?7T 2H 8OP2 2
7OU X 7 H I HG9? T H 7 F Q2 2 N5 N?
158. Translation of a literary work is as tasteless as stewed strawberry.( Forest Smith) O8 7 F Q 2E 7OU F ? 73H Q 7Q F F72 F 8?
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159. To translate precisely from the Hebrew, is not to observe the number of words, but the perfect sense and meaning as the phrase of our tongue will serve to be understood. (William Fulke) O8 H H 6 JW ? X the Hebrew, H7OU 7 X6 5 26 T
H7d 8P2 9 F QW 7OU 9 5 H5 7 XP3H G9?JW 75? GX 5KI
160. Ideas can be translated but not the words and their associations.( Sydney) 2 2 N JJW O8 N? H HG3H26 T 8P2 2 N F73EF 5 T 75
161. Translation is a sin.....translation is meddling with inspiration.( Grant Showerman) O87OU 2 3 F ? .........
O87OU N 9 E 6 G9?2 7 ? GX
7 9
162. All translation is a compromise-the effort to be literal and an effort to be idiomatic.( Benjamin Jowett)
344
O8 I 9 N7OU O P O P -2 T FG9?7OU 7 F Q 8P2 T FXPG9?7OU 7 F Q 6
163. Translation is almost as old as original authorship and has a history as honorable and as complex as that of any other branch of literature. (Theodore Savory) O87 E QXP7OU F 7F H H7 H Q 3 T 75 9 E ? fQ Q 8P O P 7OU F H H 8P7OU F d Qd? F7OU H8P 5 5 EF S
164. A translation ought to endeavor not only to say what his author has said, but to say it as he has said it. (John Conington) O82 T Q Q F H7T 2HTWN H O PT 5 75 N?TWN P HTWN H 7OU F F75 N?TWNJK
165. A translation may be good as translation but it can not be an adequate reproduction of the original. (George Henry Lewes) O8 XXPN 7 H Q O8 H H J7OU J N QQ5 ? fQ Q H 7T T
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166. In its happiest efforts, translation is but approximation and its efforts are not often happy.( George Henry Lewes) G 2 T F 2 :5 F :N5 O8, O87OU 2 :5 F :N H2 28? 28K 8PQH 2 I 2 T 5 H N?7OU 2 :5
167. One difficulty in translation is that a word in one language seldom has a precise equivalent in another one.( Arthur Schopenhauer) 2 H 9 KF G O82E 26 T G 9 KF QXP H 2 7 2 H JW ? H H 6 G EF S
168. Say what one will of the inadequacy of translation, it remains one of the most important and worthiest concerns in the totality of world affairs.( J.W. Goethe) 8H H F 9 KF XP7OU 2 H7T T 5 O8 2 7OU F 9 KF F 6 2
F :N 8PVW? F H H F :N7 F 5? G X6 I 9 N5 79 : 8
169. The language of translation ought never to attract attention to itself. (J.H. Frere) 5 O8 H2 P :? 2 GX Q 7
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170. Faithful translators render into English all the conversational phases according to their grammatical and logical form.( J.H. Frere) O8 FdEF J N2 WH G H7 F Q I 9 N WO QQ7 F Q 8P 79 : V85 T 75
171. Spirited translation substitute a modern variety or peculiarity for an ancient one. (J.H. Frere) O8 F 3 3 G3? 6 2 98 98 F 9 E 8 P7fT P 6 9 Q O8 F7 H H
172. The different genius of the language of the original and translation will often make it necessary to depart from the manner of the original, in order to convey a faithful picture of the sense, but it would be highly preposterous to depart, in any case, from the sense, for the sake of imitating the manner. Equally improper would be, to sacrifice either the sense or manner of the original, if these can be preserved consistently with purity of expression to a fancied ease or superior gracefulness of composition. (Tytler) 2 Xf P F H 5 ? fQ Q 8PQH S F O8XP 6 G9? X6 7OU F XP8P I X 5 ? fQ Q, 7TEF FXP EF OJK TTX 5 7d , H XP7OU
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7 EF FV NO H FXP8P I G H8P , X 2 W? K , 6 9 QX:N :H 9 5 78 QQ F H79 P H 7 H 7 XP7OU , 7 8P J? H7OU 7d 9 E R7OU 5 ? fQ Q, J? F 798H IJW ? H F 2 N? 2 Q : 5 N Q2 H FJW X 9 E 2 H F N 7 F 5 F FO P Q5KI
173. A good translation must be able to discover at once the true character of his authorÂ&#x161;s style. He must ascertain with precision to what class it belongs......characteristic qualities he must have the capacity of rendering equally conspicuous in the translation as in the original. If a translator fails...... be ever so thoroughly master of the sense of his author, he will present him through a distorting medium or exhibit him often in a garb that is unsuitable to his character. (Tytler) O8 FN ? J2 Q28: G 7 8 7N F8 P7fT P F7OU X 5 8 P7fT P5 O PT 5 75 Q F F H O P7 P F 7OU 5 .......
75 ? EQG9? HGX Q2 JW ? H 6 2: T F7OU 8 P7fT P F75 ?
2 J5 J N2 F3 N7X H 7 H 7 G O8G ? fQ Q J? O88? 798 ..... 7OU 5 2 W? K H ?X 5 O PT 5 75 ,
348
75 XP7 75 VH 6 G9?V N WO QQdKF WH P9 H 8 9 E N 75 G 72 EF QQ H H79 P Q8 P7fT P5 75
174. Fidelity indeed is of the very essence of translation and the term itself implies it. (W. Cowper) 2 JW ? N ?X 7OU H 6 2 S 5 O8 8P26 T 5 7 F Q 7OU
175.
The
translation
which
partakes
equally
of
fidelity
and
liberality......promises fairest. (W. Cowper) O8dKF H H H 7 H 7 5 2 JW ? 8P2 GX ? ......... G9? 26 F
F : F :N
176. A translation in verse......seems to me something absurd, impossible.( Victor Hugo) O8G Q .........NW79 E Qf QQ F F798 98, 7OU O H N?
177. If they can not have the original, they want a near substitute, not a new poem.( J.M. Cocking)
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J? T 75 H J ? fQ Q, T 7X ? 26 FG3? FG 8?72 , HG3?Q G9 H
178. Ideal translation would be that which reversed would produce the original text. (C. Michaud) O87 F Q :N 2 XP7OU F FJW 6 G9? 5? FXP ? 9 E ? fQ Q
179. The spirit of poetry resides entirely in its body....... The translation should meticulously reconstruct its body in another language. (Edouard Roditi) X
5 WHG H I 9 N........
O82 ? 5KI G9 H H
T J T J G EF S
180. All translation is a kind of illusion. These translations are always best in which the illusion is most complete and the idiom least suggestive of translation.( Edouard Roditi) O8 I 9 7OU T : 3 N O8798H I 7OU F FN F :N7 S dKF T 7 7OU F F QW F :N 8P 6 7OU 5? 7 P F ? F :N5 O8
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181. Only when we oblige the reader move within the linguistic habits of the author will there by worthy translations. (O.R. Gasset) 2H7 EF T 7 Q 2 QVW? H G9? P :? G 7 F Q 5 O PT XP7OU F H H
182. Most published translation are ÂĽscandaluses et ridiculesÂ&#x161; and give the impression that foreigners can neither think nor speak. (Andre Therive) O8 FJW T T H 7OU ÂĽscandaluses et ridiculesÂ&#x161; 8PG9?2 O P QGX H 3 H 3 J H 2H2 N9 E TWN
183. The taste of an age is reflected in its (favourite) translations.( Julius Peterson) 5 :JW 6 G9? P ? 8 QG O8
184. If one denies the concept of translation one must give up the concept of a language community. (Kart Vossler) J? Q 2 Oe 7 2 2 N5 O8
Q 2 ? 78 2 2 N5
3: 3
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185. However well written a verse translation may be, it can only be a poem based on the ideas of the original.( Rajshekhar Das) H R O8Q FJW 75 XXP, J7OU 7T 2HQ F WHQ TEI 5 2 2 N5 ? fQ Q7 H I
186. It is a pretty poem Mr. Pope, but you must not call it Homer.( Bentley) 7OU Q F N , Mr. Pope , H2: ? H7 H Homer
187. Our speech is full of habitual phrases which if translated into a foreign language must be rendered in some equivalent phrases not in a word for word translation. Even the simplest phrase collocation would loss its idiomatic force in a word for word translation. (Smith) 26 TWN5 7 7OU F F7 R ON? 8:H 26 F7OU dKF J? JW O875? WH H O P7 ? JW J N2 G Q 8:H 26 F 6 2 HG3HG O826 T
H 26 T ? H 75? N? G9?79 P Q 8:H 26 F H F N: XP W 7 T8 7 F Q 6 G O8 T H T
188. I suppose very few people have ever taken such pains in translations as I have : though certainly not to be literal. But at all cost, a thing must live :
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with a transfusion of oneÂ&#x161;s own worse Life if one canÂ&#x161;t retain the OriginalÂ&#x161;s better. Better a live Sparrow than a stuffed Eagle.( Edward Fitzerald) f : H 2 78R ? S N? Q2 7XRQO NG O87 H Q Ff N? Q : ? H H N?7OU H H H N : J , F F ? WH : N? O85 3 F H H 5 7 5 Q 2 J? Q 2 H J ?dKF F FN H 5 ? fQ Q Better a live Sparrow than a stuffed Eagle
189. It is useless to read Greek in translation : translators can but offer us a vague equivalent. (Virginia Woolf) H O P 3 FXP H G O8 : O8 J H7 T 7 7TEF G9?T X F F 2 7 H F28: 72 E
190. The clumsiest literal translation is a thousand times more useful than the prettiest paraphrase.(Nabokov) O8 F :H H F :N7OU T 2 I 7OU O P 3 H J N2 F N F :N
191.Traduttori, traditori =Translators are traitors.( Italian Saying) Traduttori, traditori = O87OU VW? 9 E 9 98
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192. Translation does not usually create great works ; but it often helps great works to be created.(Italian Saying) N O O8 H N? ? F F G9 H ; HQH S F 3H G9? N 7 F FXP JW ? 5KI
193. J.V. Jenson (Dane) wrote 700 word sketch, this was translated into Swedish, German, English, French, then in Danish again, each translator a master of both languages. Final product was unrecognizable.( Anon) J.V. Jenson (Dane) N?75 Q 26 T H 2 H S 700 T , IJW O8 W Swedish, German, English, French 8PG Danish 2 I , O8 H8P2 75? GX H JH ?5 I
194. If English.......can not achieve accuracy, universality and force without loss of dignity, the English is not a language into which it is worthwhile to translate Greek plays. (Vellacott) J? .......... H J N? Q2 JW ? H 6 , T8O X W 7 2 7OU 7 T, 2:? 2H Q2 T FXP O8Q 8P2
354
2 7OU 8 8P
HG3H dKF
195. If you really thought the original was like that, what can you have seen in it to make you think it was worth translating. (Robert Bridges) J? 2: N2 NX S 7 F Q ? fQ Q7OU H I P F2: J N?79R G ? fQ Q F 6 G9?2:2 N H 7OU O8 F 2: 2H
196. I feel that only in a poetic-prose can the dignity and the beauty of the original be preserved. A few verses could be translated in verse but to render a whole epic into a poem of beauty as well as clarity is a difficult task. The meaning may perhaps be made clear in simple verse but the music of the sound is bound to suffer and in Sanskrit poetry this music of words is no less important than the meaning.( Ravindra Nath Tagore) f W? K H 7T 2HG Q ? ? F7 F QQ J7OU 7 T N? 8P2 N 5 ? fQ QJW ? Q 78R ? JW O8G Q H J N2 9 T I 9 N WHQ F 2 N N 7 H Q2 PXH 3 N7X 7OU 3 I F Q 2 9 XXPJW 6 G9?3 N7X Q H S H7 7T8 7OU F FJW VW N Q2 : 5 8PG Q 7 F T7 P5 26 T I H 2 6 2 H 2 9
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197. Omar Khayyam at a particular period of life did influence me. I took has wares and poured my own wine into them. (H.R. Bachchan)
198. Those who will seek for close and faithful rendering of individual passages will be sorely disappointed.( Lala Sitaram) 75 798H I VW?dKF 9 J N2 F28? 8P F73EF JE N?5 5? 75 7fT P Q:228XPJW 6 G9?V N9 H 7XRQO N
199. One should abandon the effort to translate the untranslatable.( Hilaire Belloc) Hilaire Belloc Q 2 2 8P I 2 T FXP O8 F F H J O8 N?
200. Translation of verse is nearly better rendering in prose.( Hilaire Belloc) O8Q 7 E QXPN H J N2 G ? ?
201. Translation from one language into another...is like gazing at a Flemish Tapestry with the wrong side out. (Cervantes)
356
O8X 9 K F WH 9 KF ....79 E Q X? F Flemish Tapestry N? 5? FV N
202. It were as wise to cast a violet into crucible that you might discover the formal principle of its color and odor seek to transfuse from one language to another the creations of a poet.( Shelley) 203. My translation will interest you from its form and also in many respects in its details very unliteral as it is.( Fitzgerald) O85 f XP 6 G9?2: GXX WO QQ5 8PG 7 GXG H S G 8P7 N5 F H7OU O 79 E Q F 7OU
204. I am persuaded that.......the translator.......must recast that original into his own likeness........the live dog better than the dead lion.( Filzgerald) f JW 3 3 H ...........
O8............
? ? ? fQ Q I 5KI G9 H WH2
79 E 5 5 75 7 ........ : 5 F 3 WHN H F 8?
205. The translatorÂ&#x161;s first duty is a historical one to be faithful...... aims to retain every peculiarity of the original, so far as he is able, with the greater
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care the more foreign it may happen to be, so that it may never be forgotten that he is imitating and imitating in a different material. (Newman) 9 ? F 5 O82E 7OU O87 F QO P F7OU VW?73EF JE N?.......... F I 7OÂ? 9 F ?dKF 8 P7fT P : S H 5 ? fQ Q, 79 E H F 75 7OU VW? J, N? 7 GXG H H N F H H O P7 XXP7 N5KI 7OU , 7TEF F H XXP HJW 8E H 75 6 8 78 QQ 8P 6 8 78 QQG 7 EI 9 F H
206. It is indispensably requisite in a translation to give line for line.(Feltham) 7OU F FX6 7OU H F dKF 5 N7 N?G O8 (to give line for line O8 H N?)
207. Nor will you as faithful translator render word for word. Harace Translation should be free rather than word for word. (Horace) H H 2: XP7OU O8 F H 73EF JE FJ N2 T H T O8 Harace 2 7OU P H T H T
208. Translations are not reproductions but productions of similar expressions. (Croce)
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O8 HG3H J N QQ H7OU ? N 2F 8? S
209. The replacement of textual material in one language (SL) by equivalent textual material in another language (TL).(Catforts) F7 EI 9 7 F Q ? fQ QG 9 KF (SL) N 7 EI 7 F Q ? fQ Q F 2H 7 H G EF S
210. Translation of verse is as one engaged in strawplaiting sunbeams. (Heine) O8Q 7OU 73H Q O8 H 9 KF F7 F T G (strawplaiting sunbeams O8 H N?)
211. Poets can be translated but it is impossible to translate the writing of academicians.( Quasimodo) JJW O8 N? H 7OU O H N? FXP O8 75 5 3
212. No literal translation can be just and excellent original too and no rash paraphrase can make amends. (Alexander Pope)
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Flore R. Amos H O87 F Q J7OU 2H 8P ? fQ Q FT 7
8P H
J N2 F9: 9 T 8H J ? G9?JW ?
213. Theory of translation can not be reduced to a rule of thumb, it must again be modified to include new facts. L 5 O8 H JJW 6 G9? ? 8 Q26 P 6 F H S H 8P7 N , ? JW ? 5 2 I FO P QN? 2 X G9 H
214. In general, the translations of the heyday were accurate neither in word nor in shape. But they aimed to discover new worlds of thought and beauty. (Flore R. Amos) N F O,
O85 F :H 7 E F :N7OU O8 FJW ? H 6 I HG3H
26 T 8PG WO QQ HT 75 N? I 7OÂ? 2? 9 26 T G9 H5 2 2 N 8P2 N
215. He demands a complete transcribe of the thought and spirit. (K.W.H. Scholz) 75 ? J N2 F QW 5 2 2 N 8PX
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216. A translation should be read for pleasure. (J.H. Philimore) O82 JW H 7TEF 2 T GX 217. Version must produce upon the English reader the effect which the original has produced upon himself. The two dangers are over translation and under translation.( J.A.K. Thomson) 7 EF ? H G9?7 NVW? H V8 F7 NdKF ? fQ Q N? H G9?7 NN? 7 5 7 F F WH79 E O8 8P G ? O8
218. The new verses should produce the same effect upon their readers as the originals did upon their contemporaries. (Wilamowitz-Mollendoref) Benedetto Croce
219. ÂĽFaithful ugliness and faithless beautyÂ&#x161; proverbial; we can not reduce what has already possessed aesthetic form to another form also aesthetic. Unesthetic translations are simple commentaries. But there is relative possibility of translations not as reproductions, but as productions of similar expressions. Samuel Butler
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220. The genius of the language into which a translation is being made is the first thing to be considered ; if the original was readable, the translation must be so too. Samuel Butler
221. Liberty of translating poetry into prose involves the continual taking of more or less liberty throughout, for much that is right in poetry is wrong in prose. Sidney Lanier T5 O8Q WH ? ? 7 F 5? Q P 6 F H 7 EF 5 T 9 E ? N 8 N H F FJW ? G Q 2E V NG Q ? ?
222. It is words and their associations which are untranslatable, not ideas, there is no idea........which can not be adequately produced as idea in English words. Paul Cauer
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7OU 26 T 8P 5 T 75 dKF 7OU F F H J O8 N?,
H
2 2 N, H 2 2 N....... dKF H JJW ? 5KI H 7T T Q 2 2 NG 26 T
223. Comparable effect is the desirable goal, a perfect translation would be identical with the original. T.H. Warren V8 F7O Q7 Q N?7OU 7OÂ? 9 F H7OU F H T GX, O8 F QW XP7OU F F79 E Q ? fQ Q
224. A good translation should be rather faithful than exact. T.H. Warren O8 FN 2 7OU O8 F2H 5? H 73EF JE H O8 FJW ? H 6
225. A translation must read like an original, while, preserving the differentiating character of the original. Benjamin Jowett O8 ? H 79 E ? fQ Q,
5 P F ?dKF 8 P7fT P F 6 G9?
H 5 ? fQ Q
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226. The first requisite of an English translation is that it be English. Thorough going comparison of Greek and English diction, with resulting problems for the translator. J. Lewis May
227. There is no such thing as translation as proved by the wedding of words and thought. L Portier
228. A translation demands a certain moral attitude at least as much as an effort of intelligence. Julius Peterson O8 ? 2 8 F H H ? F :N2 T 7 H F XP N?5 2 f8 N
229. The translation as work of art can never be a true image of the original, a rebirth in the translators, tongue of products of another language. It will always impose a new form.
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Margarel Munsterberg O87OU 8OP H72 7OU TTX FX 5 ? fQ Q 7 NG9 HG O8 6 5 ? 5 EF XP 6 9 NG9? WO QQG9 H7 S
230. The peculiar genius of a language appear best in the process of translation. J.B. Postgate Xf P FO P8 N5 O eN F :NG Q 5 O8
231. The prime merit of a translation is faithfulness. The faithful translator will give the letter where possible, but in any case the spirit. Herbert Peyser 2 N 78 F 6 2 F :N5 O87OU 2 H 73EF JE
O8 F H 73EF JE XPG9?
9 E F7OU O N? HG Q 7OU X
232. Perfect translation of song text or opera libretto is impossible Nemiah O89 E 7T8 F QW 9 E 75 8P2 7T8 :O 7OU F F7OU O H N?
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233. Shall we read literature in translation? Frost T 7 XP H G O8G9 ?
234. Every word should be represented some how in the translation, except where....the omission of a word improves the English and takes nothing from the meaning. Basil Anderton
235. Translation is a mode of self-expression, it springs from a desire to instruct and to enrich literature. O87OU 5 N N? 7 P NNX F F ? FXP P 6 8P 6 G9?N 5KI John Masefield
236. The inspired thing is easy to translate. It has light in itself and leads into light, the translator may stumble, but the rendering will glimmer. To men in darkness a glimmer can be ÂĽHopeÂ&#x161; itself.
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F FJW P :? G9?2 N7OU F F H FXP O8 G ? 7 8P 6 O WH H O8 XXPV NT8 N H J N2 XPG9? 8 S Q2 F WHG 2 EN 8 J7OU o2 9 p G 7
Foresten 237. Translation is the transference of the content of a text from one language into another, bearing in mind that we can not always dissociate the content from the form. O87OU ? Q Q 5 9 E X 9 KF WH 9 KF ,
N?
T X H H T 7 H J 6 G9?Q Q X WO QQ N?
Dryden 238. It is impossible to translate verbally and well at the same time. It is much like dancing on ropes with fettered legs. 7OU O H N? FXP O8 26 TWN 8P O8 N?N G 7 8 7N 79 E 7 ? Q73E N? 7 ? FJW T ?
Dryden 239. Translation is not so loose as paraphrase nor so close as metaphrase
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O8 H N?7OU P7 H Q J N2 9 E H N?G 8?3 N7 H Q 7O8 F 2 9
C.Rabin 240. Translation is a process by which a spoken or written utterance takes place in one language which is intended and presumed to convey the same meaning as previously. It thus involves two distinct factors, meaning or reference to some slice of reality, and the difference between two languages in referring to that reality. Translation is a custom-house through which passes, if the custom officers are not alert, more smuggled goods of foreign idioms than through any other linguistic frontier.
Montaigne 241. It is easy to translate authors like this one, with hardly anything but subject matter to transfer, but it is risky to undertake those who have given their language much grace and elegance, particulary with a language of less power.
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Arnold 242......Translation is a work not only inferior to the original by the whole difference of talent between the first composed and his translator; it is even inferior to the best which the translator could do his best with a subject which does not penetrate him. No man can be penetrated by a subject which he does not conceive independently O87OU F H7T 2H F6 ? 7 H I H ? fQ Q N 2 H I 9 N 5 T 2 P9 H X F Q H 8P O85 75 7OU 2H F F F6 ? Q F FN F :NdKF O8 H J 6 F FN F :N5 75 N? 3 F75? GX 8 N H 2 GN J7OU VW?JW 75? GX 8 NN? 3 F75 H75? GX N 7
Arnold 243. A translation should affect us in the same way as the original may be supposed to have affected its first hearers. O8 V8 P ? QT 7 G 7N 5 P F ? fQ Q XXPJW 2 N2P7 FXP N? V8 H VW?Â&#x2026;Â&#x2039; 2 I
Arnold
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244.........that union of the translator with his original, which alone can produce a good translator, that it takes place when the mist which stand between the mist of alien modes of thinking, speaking and feeling on the translatorÂ&#x161;s partdefecates to a pure transparency. 9 T5 O8N? ? fQ Q5 75 , dKF 2 7N J ? O8 FN N?, F 7 N5KI F 6 9 N ?7 EF 2 T H dKF I WH P9 H 2 T H 5 F O8 5 2 2 N, TWN 8P2 W? K Q 5X N F F HN Q H 5 O8 O WH2 O H G Q :
A. Cowley 245. If a man should undertake to translate Pind r word for word, it would be thought one mad man had translated another........I have .taken, left out and added, what I pleased. J? 2 9 KF 2 N6 7 O8 T H T
XPJW 2 N H 2 Q? 2 9 KF N?
O87 EF EF ............f N? 6 , N?7 8P N?7T F F Ff T GX
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