Management
IT
Materials
Engine and Chassis
Electrical and Electronics
Production and Manufacturing
Published by
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ISSUE 3 2008 ÂŁ12 â‚Ź18 $25 Rs.300 w w w. a u t o f o c u s a s i a . c o m
Reinventing Automotive Steel | Nanotechnology | Capturing CO2
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Foreword Infotainment Keeping pace with consumer demand
T
he dashboard has become the hottest property
scaling up on in-car infotainment systems to differentiate
for today’s car makers. Automobile companies
themselves from competitors, lure customers and build
are vying with each other to make their vehicle
brand loyalty in the face of cut-throat competition.
dashboards as electronically advanced as possible. They
Car
makers
are
partnering
with
technology
have come a long way from the days of optional AM
companies like Microsoft to roll out advanced in-car
radios and stand-alone audio systems to allowing
communication, entertainment and navigation systems.
consumers to operate music players, Bluetooth-enabled
A few recently launched in-car navigation systems provide
mobile phones, notebooks and a host of digital devices
consumers with news updates on weather, fuel prices,
that operate through steering wheel, radio controls and
sports, and movies, and allow vehicles to communicate
voice commands.
with other vehicles.
Electronics, which accounted for about 10 per cent
With in-car infotainment becoming a key variable
of a vehicle’s content during the early 1990s, is
influencing the decision to buy a particular car brand,
expected to grow up to 40 per cent by 2010. iSuppli
OEMs should ensure that they use standards that enable
Group estimates that the global automotive infotainment
quick development and cost-effective integration of
products market will grow from the current US$ 38 billion
in-vehicle infotainment capabilities and guarantee
to US$ 54 billion by 2012.
dynamic data integrity. In our cover story, Ton Steenman
While consumers benefit from this trend, OEMs are
talks about open platform architecture and considerations
finding it difficult to realise profits from such add-ons.
for building a new platform while Duncan Bennett
OEMs are operating in an environment where they are
describes the advantages of F-RAM over EEPROM and
required to meet consumer demand for exciting features
capacitor combination in providing high data availability
without affecting their bottom lines. With consumers
and data integrity.
demanding more in-car entertainment and new digital
Auto Focus Asia strives to make conscious efforts to
devices hitting the market regularly, car makers are
reach a wider audience. Starting this issue, an e-book
forced to think at least five years ahead from the date of
of Auto Focus Asia will be available on our website
conceptualising a new dashboard and its components. They
www.autofocusasia.com for a nominal fee.
have to ensure that their current infotainment products are
We look forward to your continued support.
compatible not only with the current digital devices, but also with those likely to be released in the future. Further, the competing interfaces, standards and technologies, and shorter product lifecycles in the consumer electronics industry pose a serious challenge to Tier 1 suppliers as well. While the going will be tough, shrewd car makers are trying to take advantage of this growing trend. They are
Vinaya Kumar Mylavarapu Editor
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Management Tata Nano
Sweeping change
12
Annuar Jalaluddin Senior Consultant Automotive & Transportation Practice, Asia Pacific Frost & Sullivan, Malaysia
Infotainment Systems
Role of open platform architecture
Indian Auto Industry Facing the challenges of new age
52
17
Ashok Kolaskar, Advisor, National Knowledge Commission Managing Director, DSK Global Education and Research Pvt. Ltd., India
Ton Steenman, Vice President Digital Enterprise Group & General Manager Low-Power Embedded Products Division Intel Corporation, USA
Materials
Infotainment Applications Need for dynamic data integrity
55
Design for Recycling
Duncan Bennett, Strategic Marketing Manager Ramtron International, USA
19
The Renault way Fabrice Abraham Recycling Engineering Manager Renault, France
Reinventing Automotive Steel For environmentally friendlier vehicles
23
Edward G Opbroek, Director, WorldAutoSteel International Iron and Steel Institute, USA
Engine and Chassis Diesel Engines Potential, possibilities and challenges
Information Technology Operations Execution System Taking automotive manufacturing to the next level
Horst Harndorf, Professor, Department of Piston Machines and Internal Combustion Engines, University of Rostock, Germany
05
Renewable Methane The potential alternative
29
John Baldwin, Managing Director, CNG Services Ltd, UK
Frederick L Thomas Industry Director, Automotive Apriso Corporation USA
Powertrain Duel of the eco-champions
32
Kevin Hauser, Vice President Ricardo Strategic Consulting, USA
Consumer Demands
09
Challenges for automakers and suppliers
Numerical Simulation of Exhaust System Noise
36
David Herrin, Assistant Research Professor Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Kentucky, USA Jun Han, Visiting Scholar, University of Kentucky, USA
Electric Drive Vehicles in Future Transportation Potential for fuel cell vehicles
Andrew Poliak Automotive Segment Manager QNX Software Systems Canada
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ISSUE - 3
Alan C Lloyd, President International Council on Clean Transportation, USA
2008
39
Contents Design and Testing Driver-centred Design
Components and Ancillaries 41
India Gearing up for new challenges
Mark S Young Research Lecturer, Human-centred Design Institute, School of Engineering and Design, Brunel University UK
Automotive Design Process The consuming culture
Improving Automotive Design Process
James J Tobin EVP, Business Development President, Asia Magna International, Inc.
44
Julie Jenson Bennett, Head, Research and Human Sciences PDD Group Ltd., UK
76
Engineering Services ESO The India story
46
78
Omer Ahmed Siddiqui Assistant Editor Auto Focus Asia
A new perspective
Matteo Conti, Senior Lecturer and Industrial Placement Tutor Northumbria University, UK
Production and Manufacturing
Electrical and Electronics Car Key
Today and in the future
58
Capturing CO2
83
Need for innovative technologies
Huanyu Gu Technical Business Development Manager Car Access and Immobilization
Andrei G Fedorov, Associate Professor George W Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology USA
Sebastian Schreuder Marketing Manager Car Access and Immobilization NXP Semiconductors GmbH, Germany
Electricity Fuel Driving new utility-automaker collaboration
64
Edward Kjaer, Director of Electric Transportation Southern California Edison, USA
Global Trends in Dynamic Traffic Services
68
Howard Hayes Vice President, NAVTEQ Traffic NAVTEQ Corporation, USA
Egil Juliussen, Principal Analyst and Co-founder Telematics Research Group Inc., USA
72
86
Jagjit Nanda Technical Expert Materials and Nanotechnology Department Research and Advanced Engineering Ford Motor Company, USA
Remote Scanner Welding
Focus on Asia Pacific
Driver Assist Systems The road ahead
Nanotechnology Nanomaterials for energy storage and conversion
90
Using latest laser technologies
Thomas Schwoerer Product and Application Manager Sales and Marketing Department Trumpf Laser GmbH + Co. KG, Germany
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Issue 3
2008
Editors : Assistant Editor : Consulting Editor : Editorial Associates : Language Editor : Art Director : Visualiser : Graphic Designers : Copy Editor : Production : Sales Head : Sales Managers : Sales Associates : Customer Support : IT Support :
Vinaya Kumar Mylavarapu Sadhu Ramakrishna Omer Ahmed Siddiqui P Sudhir Roopna Ravindran Pragyan Paramita Barik G Srinivas Reddy M A Hannan Sk Mastan Sharief K Ravi Kanth Ayodhya Pendem Prity Jaiswal Suresh Giriraj Rajeev Kumar Sunita John O P Aarti Naveed Iqbal Sylas Makam G K Abhishek Leena Mary P Bhavani Prasad Rajkiran Boda Savita Devi Shadaan Osmani Iftakhar Mohammed Azeemuddin Mohammed Sankar Kodali Thirupathi Botla N Saritha
Auto Focus Asia is published by In association with The B2B Division of Ochre Media
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I N F O R M AT I O N T E C H N O L O G Y
Operations Execution System
Taking automotive manufacturing to the next level An OES is enhanced over MES as it synchronises production and logistics with ERP and plant automation systems, thereby providing a completely integrated system with real time visibility at all plants irrespective of their location.
R
emember the advent of networked computers – and how stand-alone systems quickly became obsolete once workers could collaborate, share information and standardise through client/server technology? The same quantum leap is occurring in automotive manufacturing as plant-specific Manufacturing Execution Systems (MES) are making way for the enterprise-wide Operations Execution System (OES). This transformation is happening for exactly the same reasons as it was in the case of the move to networked PCs – increased efficiencies, greater adaptability and standardisation of best practices.
MES on steroids
An OES is a much larger, more robust super-MES that links all aspects of operations, not just manufacturing. A traditional MES operates at the plant level, tracking the five main elements of
Operations execution system
PLM
ERP
OES Automation Layer
Analytics Figure 1
Frederick L Thomas Industry Director, Automotive Apriso Corporation USA
manufacturing: materials, equipment, labour, tooling, containers and fixtures, and specifications and data. Many socalled MES products do not meet even these limited criteria, and serve merely as product traceability systems. The MES concept has problems once a company becomes international as engines may be manufactured in Japan, electronics in Mexico and assembling in Italy. Each plant typically has its own key performance indicators (KPIs), making it almost impossible to compare performance of facilities in a meaningful way. Similarly, an important process innovation developed at one plant cannot be easily imported to other plants as a best practice.
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I N F O R M AT I O N T E C H N O L O G Y
Other issues arise with portability. MES systems are often hardcoded to a specific plant equipment configuration. Rarely do other plants feature the same set up. Management is therefore forced to implement yet another stand-alone MES. An OES, on the other hand, has the ability to synchronise manufacturing with your supply chain, both upwards to the Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) system, and downwards to the automation layer. An OES can also provide the optional benefit of integrating product quality / tolerance execution results with Product Lifecycle Management (PLM) specifications, thereby increasing the speed with which product changes can be implemented. It does this at both headquarters and in the field. The result is a completely integrated system, providing real-time visibility at all levels of your enterprise, irrespective of the plant location, whether a plant is in Tijuana or Shanghai, facilitating multi-site rollouts. Going global
The real push for OES technology comes from globalisation and its everincreasing strategic challenges. A single-function MES just won’t cut it these days, when manufacturers are facing relentless demands from customers, competitors and regulatory bodies.
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I N F O R M AT I O N T E C H N O L O G Y
Volvo CE values its OES As a leader in the heavy equipment segment of the automotive industry, Volvo Construction Equipment (CE) recently discovered the importance of an OES, as part of its migration from being a multinational corporation to a globally integrated enterprise. Reaching an “IT end-state” was the goal of Scott Park, CIO and senior VP of processes and systems. According to him,
Volvo CE needed an integrated supply chain. We need to be able to make any product at any location. We need to measure the effectiveness of methods used at different locations. Best practices can then be shared. Volvo CE selected Apriso FlexNet as its enterprise OES, linking plant operations with the broader supply chain. Much as Volvo’s ERP is a core application for business processes, the new OES serves as a core system for Volvo’s various plants. The OES integrates seamlessly with SAP ERP, which Volvo did not want to change. Apriso’s FlexNet was implemented first in Changwon, South Korea, at Volvo CE’s largest and most complex heavy equipment assembly facility. The system has automated production at component, fabrication and assembly plants. Among its many features are production order execution, material feed logistics, production monitoring, machine integration and quality control. The system was designed with discrete modules, including material feeds, scheduling and manufacturing production. This permits easy replication so that the Korean model could be reused anywhere in the world, helping to achieve Park’s vision of enterprise-wide best practices.
Take product complexity, for example. Customers want more models and variations than ever before. In the 1970s, automotive manufacturers offered about 140 different vehicles. This figure doubled by the 1990s, and is headed for doubling yet again in the next five years. Each product variation, of course, impacts manufacturing. Each of these myriad products is becoming more multifaceted. Consider mechatronics, the integration of mechanical, electronic and software technologies in the automotive industry. AMR Research estimates that nearly 40 per cent of new innovation in vehicles is directly related to mechatronic-based items like anti-lock braking, collision detection and blind-spot detection systems. While these innovations provide great value and differentiation opportunities for automakers, they also add new levels of complexity to manufacturing and distribution. Simultaneously, auto manufacturers sprint to meet ever-shorter cycle times. Electronics manufacturers now measure product line success in terms of weeks, not months. Auto OEMs have followed suit, reducing vehicle development cycle times by more than half in the last decade. The increasing pressure to reduce cycle times and bring products to market faster can potentially have an impact on quality, if not managed appropriately.
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Quality issues must be avoided at all times. In 2006, Ford shut down seven plants in two countries for a day and a half due to faulty transmission parts, at an estimated loss of US$ 27 million. Chrysler suffered a similar problem in 2007 with faulty V8 engine parts. Situations like these leave auto manufacturers in a quandary. In a 2006 survey, 32 per cent of top US manufacturers blamed either late entry to market or missing demand for the failure of products. Even more concerning is the fact that product quality was cited by another 30 per cent. Wider footprint with OES
An OES addresses complexity, timely launch and product quality issues. It delivers plant-level functionality across the manufacturing enterprise
their last legs, and the data they silo is practically useless to you at headquarters. You’re no longer competing with the plants across town, but with very aggressive contenders on other continents. Here’s how an OES could transform your dilemma. First, you would create a functional blueprint based on various plants’ inputs. Plant managers create a “wish list” of desired features for a new OES. Usually, about 80 per cent of these requirements fall into standard processes—things everybody wants and needs. The remaining 20 per cent will be features that are plant-specific, tailored to their unique culture, processes or machinery. The OES is then designed, driven by best-practice manufacturing processes gleaned from your facilities. This is a great opportunity for recognising star performers, as
Operations Execution System streamlines production and improves efficiency, and stitches together a patchwork quilt of diverse plants into one cohesive whole.
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managers become trusted advisors during the design process, helping their colleagues to improve company-wide performance. Adopting OES forces standardisation with all plants. Using consistent KPIs help create meaningful, real-time visibility into all operations. Right rigging for perfect storm
Current market conditions are much like a perfect storm. Higher product variability makes manufacturing A uthor
into supply chain network. Within a single plant, the OES can manage production, quality, warehouse, maintenance, and time and labour. More importantly, it then will be capable of managing global processes, performance and production throughout the enterprise. Let’s take an example of a Tier 1 automotive supplier, with multiple divisions, product lines and manufacturing models, and with operations in 97 countries around the world, an outsourced supply chain, 350 different vendors, and at least a hundred variations on 15 main product options. You’ve always had disparate manufacturing systems, which once worked well but are now driving up costs. Many of your legacy applications are on
more complicated than ever before. Operations are increasingly distributed and far-flung around the world. Automotive manufacturers scramble to meet faster innovation and introduction cycle times. Customers demand perfection when it comes to quality while expecting all this to be accomplished at a lower cost. An operations execution system may not be a total cure-all, but it is certainly a big step in the right direction. As many of the most successful global manufacturers are discovering, an OES streamlines production and improves efficiency. It stitches together a patchwork quilt of diverse plants into one cohesive whole. It can typically be implemented at a pilot site in seven to nine months. Best of all, it quickly pays for itself in enhanced competitive positioning, improved profitability and lower oveall training costs due to standardised processes at multiple locations. Time to move beyond MES?
Ask whether these indicators ring true: • Our “global enterprise” is really just a lot of individual plants cobbled together • We have no best practices for maximising plant performance • We have no uniform metrics for comparing plants against themselves or competitors • We lack real-time data on our enterprise or supply chains • Customers are complaining about quality or delivery time • We’re not nimble enough to adapt quickly to constantly changing customer requirements • Our ERP system constricts our ability to adapt or change processes.
Frederick Thomas, Automotive Industry Director for Apriso Corporation, has over 25 years of global automotive experience, spanning automotive OEMs, suppliers and enterprise software solution providers. He is a frequent speaker at industry forums and conferences. Several articles on the subject of MES and the need for flexible, adaptive manufacturing by global enterprises are there on his name.
I N F O R M AT I O N T E C H N O L O G Y
Consumer Demands
Challenges for automakers and suppliers Consumers’ demand for more interactive services has increased the percentage of software used in cars. This presents an opportunity and a challenge to the automakers and their Tier 1 suppliers. Andrew Poliak Automotive Segment Manager QNX Software Systems Canada
J
anuary 2008 is marked in the history of automotive industry, not for release of a new hybrid engine, crash avoidance system or other product innovation, but for the presence of an automotive manufacturer at CES, the world’s premier consumer electronics tradeshow. Rick Wagner, the CEO of GM, told the CES crowd that “...if automobiles were invented today, I am pretty sure they would debut right here at CES... because more and more, that’s exactly what today’s cars and trucks are — highly sophisticated consumer electronics.” Given this statement, it’s no surprise that developers of car infotainment and telematics systems face the same challenges as developers of other consumer devices. These challenges include shrinking development times, growing design complexity, and the need to accommodate modifications close to, or in some cases, after production. Case in point: When consumers buy a car today, they expect its infotainment system to work with the latest iPods, Bluetooth phones, or Internet services—even if the system was built before those devices or services appeared in the market. To satisfy these user expectations, many car stereos and infotainment systems must now support in-field upgrades. To address these challenges, automakers and Tier 1 suppliers rely increasingly on software. In 2006, VDC senior analyst Matt Volckmann projected that “software alone will soon account for over 12 per cent of the value of a car.” GM has long realised this fact. Back in 2004, Anthony Scott, the company’s chief information technology officer, stated that
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I N F O R M AT I O N T E C H N O L O G Y
many GM products “...have become reliant on software to the point that they could not be sold, used, or serviced without it.” GM, isn’t alone in its dependence on software; other automakers are also in the same boat. The growing use of software in the vehicle interior can, in fact, be traced to several market requirements, including personalisation, brand differentiation, legislation and connectivity to off board devices and services. Each factor presents a challenge, as well as an opportunity, to automakers and their Tier 1 suppliers.
Legislation
Citing safety concerns, many governments have passed laws that forbid the use of certain consumer electronic devices or services while driving. A case in point: In January 2008, Washington became the first US state to criminalise text messaging while driving. To automakers, this trend presents an opportunity. If they can somehow enable consumer electronics, content and services (often with location-aware features such as local traffic reports) to interact in a safe, reliable and legal way, then they can differentiate their brand and build greater customer loyalty.
The growing use of software in the vehicle interior can, in fact, be traced to several market requirements, including personalisation, brand differentiation, legislation and connectivity to off-board devices and services. Personalisation and differentiation
If the 1990s belonged to the “me” generation, the current decade belongs to the “my” generation. At every turn, consumers have the freedom to personalise their digital lifestyles, from customised faceplates for their Xboxes to personal web pages on My Space. In Europe, for example, sales of personalised ringtones are expected to hit US$ 1.1 billion in 2008. Capitalising on this trend, some car-infotainment systems already allow drivers to generate playlists of their favourite music and customise the in-dash display with personal photos. In short, automakers are using software to create the “My Car.” The goal is to help consumers develop a more personal bond with their car and, not incidentally, the car’s brand. In an industry where the volume of new cars sold per year is relatively flat, the ability to maintain loyalty of existing customers and to attract consumers from other brands is the key to success.
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This is where software comes into play. Automakers are driving investments in software to enable safe, engaging and often multimodal interactions with mobile phones, portable navigation devices (PNDs), portable media players and so on. As connectivity to the vehicle becomes ubiquitous, off-board services and content are being specifically tailored for the challenging automotive environment (noise, distraction etc.), and are even being enhanced to form new automotive experiences for the consumer. Two ends of the spectrum
To address the challenges of personalisation and safe integration of consumer electronics, automakers are pursuing a range of strategies. At one end of the spectrum, some automakers are outsourcing software development to a vendor who specialises in consumer software technologies. At the other end, some automakers are building
their own entire software stacks, all the way down to the underlying operating system—the “roll your own” approach. Ford is an example of first approach and Toyota, of the second. Both these approaches have major implications for the automaker’s business, as well for the entire supply chain, including traditional Tier 1 suppliers. With the first approach, the automaker can focus on its core competencies, while leveraging a vendor that has more experience in creating consumer-oriented software. The automaker may also benefit from the brand recognition and marketing know-how of the software vendor. But at the same time, the automaker must exercise firm control to ensure that the solution is of sufficient quality—a challenge if the vendor has little experience in addressing the reliability requirements of the automotive sector. Also, if the software vendor extends its offering to other car companies, the automaker loses its market differentiator. This approach can also impact the Tier 1 supplier, who is now supplanted to some degree by the consumer software vendor. To counter this effect, Tier 1 suppliers must develop high levels of expertise in both software design and integration. In some infotainment systems, the software now comprises thousands of modules, creating an opportunity for any organisation capable of advanced software integration. The need to keep pace with consumer electronics and services will also grow unabated. The more the Tier 1 suppliers develop expertise in these roles, the more easily they can maintain their importance in the automotive supply chain. Automakers who adopt the “roll your own” approach can also present challenges to the traditional Tier 1 supplier. In this approach, the automaker has chosen, with the possible help of third parties, to become a software company. The following are possible challenges for them. Can the automaker ship enough vehicles to sustain a
I N F O R M AT I O N T E C H N O L O G Y
Percentage of recalls due to software 10 9 8
8.7%
7 6 5 4 3 2
2.7%
3.7%
3.2%
1 0
2003
2004
2005
Source: U.S. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA)
Middle ground
Some automakers are taking a third, “middle ground” approach. They continue to source industry-standard, automotive-grade hardware and software components from their traditional Tier 1 supply channel. However, they also work with these suppliers to integrate consumer electronics, services and even automaker-specific technologies to create a unique brand value and intellectual property. This approach still impacts the supply chain. In particular, the Tier 1 supplier is expected to serve as a system integrator, built a base platform of hardware and software components and
Figure 1
then work closely with the automaker to integrate the automaker’s value-added intellectual property on top of these base platforms. To address this challenge, some Tier 1 suppliers are building “open” softwareplatformsthatcanaccommodatea variety of requirements, without significant re-engineering. In most cases, these platforms combine a general-purpose 32-bit CPU with a standards-based realtime operating system (RTOS). The OS chosen typically provides virtual-mode architecture with support for memory protection, which enables greater fault resilience and software upgradeability. In some cases, the OS also offers time and space partitioning, which simplifies integration by providing a guaranteed budget of CPU time and memory for each software subsystem. For instance, the system designer can specify that the Human Machine Interface (HMI) always gets 10 per cent of CPU time, MP3 playback gets 20 per cent, navigation gets 30 per cent etc. This approach A uthor
thriving ecosystem around their infotainment operating system? Will there be enough cars using the automaker’s proprietary platform to encourage third parties who specialise in speech technologies, multimedia and consumer-electronics integration to support the platfor m and to keep it at the forefront of innovation? Also, will the burden of constantly enhancing or growing this automotive software stack remain with the automaker or eventually fall to the automaker’s Tier 1 supply chain? These questions may take a decade to be answered, but at the heart of this approach is the automaker’s resistance to outsource a fundamental differentiator such as software.
2006
prevents task starvation problems, which often cause serious delays at the integration phrase. Increasingly, car radios, infotainment systems and navigation units must interact with MP3 players, USB storage keys, DVD players, and digital media cards, not to mention future devices based on WiFi and Bluetooth data networking. To support this requirement, the OS must implement a modular and dynamic software architecture. For instance, a microkernel OS can mount and unmount file systems “on the fly” as consumer devices are plugged in or plugged out. The OS can also dynamically start and stop any hardware drivers that the devices may require. With this approach, an in-car system can support new media devices by simply downloading a small software “patch.” Choosing the right
Coming back to General Motors, it is no accident that Rick Wagner spoke at CES. You can see that companies like GM are looking at the car interior much like consumer electronics manufacturers look at their products. And, like consumer device manufacturers, automakers are relying more and more on software to differentiate their products. The battle for the consumer is playing out in the interior of the vehicle and, increasingly, software is becoming the weapon of choice. The growing role of software in automobiles is reflected in the percentage of software-related recalls (Figure 1). Maintaining software reliability will be an ongoing challenge, especially since automakers and Tier 1 suppliers must accelerate their software development schedules to keep pace with ongoing changes in consumer electronics.
Andrew Poliak is automotive business manager at QNX Software Systems where he is responsible for the company’s large automotive ecosystem. He has developed and is currently leading the QNX OEM Innovation Labs (OIL) Program. He is an avid speaker on the direction and future of telematics and in-car infotainment.
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mall cars are the mainstay of Indian automotive market owing to India’s distribution of income and road conditions. Demand for small cars like Maruti 800, Hyundai Santro and Tata Indica has risen due to the unprecedented economic boom experienced by India over the past three years. However, owning a new car is still beyond the reach of an average person
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in India, despite some decline in car prices due to the keen competition and localisation. The average small car price is about US$ 4500, an amount high enough to force many middle-class people to opt for motorcycles as their primary mode of transport. A man ferrying his entire family in a dilapidated motorcycle in treacherous traffic is a common sight in India. These
people can’t but avoid putting themselves and their loved ones in immense danger. If they were given a choice, they would likely avoid this perilous situation by riding comfortably in a four wheeled vehicle. When car prices remain a deterrent, they can just continue to hope but with no practical possibility. Tata Motors seems to have taken note of the whole ordeal and has arrived with a solution.
M anagement
Tata Nano Sweeping change
Tata Nano is a marvel of a product, yet audaciously economical and mechanically simple. But does owning and operating a Nano yield significant savings and benefits in the long run? Annuar Jalaluddin Senior Consultant Automotive & Transportation Practice Asia Pacific Frost & Sullivan Malaysia
Tata Nano, the new model introduced by Tata motors, hailed as “the people’s car”, is an amazingly cheap car. With a price tag of US$ 2500, Tata Nano is indeed an affordable middle class family car. Tata Nano is a dream come true for an average Indian. His /her ideas about owning and driving a car will become a reality soon. An analysis of the new car seems necessary as it is bringing
mobility to the masses in an efficient and economic manner. Achieving the cost objective
Tata has defied the conventional odds and sceptics in the industry through the innovation of the world’s cheapest car. Tata Nano is a marvel of a product yet audaciously economical and mechanically simple. It is a breakthrough in
frugal engineering where innovation is driven by cost savings and sheer ingenuity. Tata managed to reorient the basic tenets of efficiency and practicality to meet the cost target. Tata Nano’s efficiency comes from including only those items that are necessary for basic transportation and eliminating the not so relevant ones i.e. having one part/component that can perform a task just as good as two parts/ components can do, thus resulting in cost savings, e.g. one windscreen wiper and one side mirror. Tata also refrains from including items that are not feasible due to monetary reasons. Radio, air conditioner (despite the sizzling heat in India), power steering are not included while the instrument panel consists of only a speedometer, odometer, and fuel gauge similar to that of the two-wheelers—basic, yet functional. In addition, Tata has come up with practical ways to reduce car weight and
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M anagement
thereby trim down the overall cost. It uses comparatively small and light engine, a 623cc two-cylinder petrol engine made of aluminium, unlike conventional engines which are made out of cast iron. The engine of Tata Nano is strategically placed at the back of the car leaving the front section for luggage, that too with the capacity of a briefcase. This is the most significant element in bringing down the weight and the overall cost of the car. Other factors that contribute towards the weight reduction are the usage of hollow steering wheel shafts, plastic body panels and smaller tubeless tyres. As a result of these measures, Tata Nano weighs only about 590kg. Lesser weight and fewer parts mean less raw material and lower cost for Tata Nano. Safety in mind
Besides having the right parts to meet the cost objective, Tata Nano has adequate features that exceed current regulatory requirements and meet minimum safety standards. It has a sheet-metal body with strong passenger compartment equipped with safety
features such as crumple zones, intrusion-resistant doors, seat belts, strong seats and anchorages. The rear tailgate glass is fixed to the body and tubeless tyres enhance safety further. Ownership cost
It is quite obvious that Tata Nano is cheap to manufacture, but the question is, does owning and operating a Nano over a period of time yield significant savings and benefits? While the low-price tag of Nano looks attractive, it is important to look at certain other factors like the running cost of the car in the long run. Potential buyers need to consider the rising price of petrol. Petrol prices have breached the US$ 100 mark with no sign of abating as global demand skyrocketed. The influx of thousands of Tata Nano on Indian roads would elevate the demand for petrol and this might bring a new dimension to the continuous hike of petrol price in India, which still depends on the Middle East for oil. Petrol prices may reach a point where owners of Tata Nano could no longer afford to buy
petrol to run it. If that is the case, Tata Nano owners may leave their cars behind and resort to riding two-wheelers. In such a scenario, Tata Nano’s value proposition may no longer make an economic sense. The low cost of ownership model championed by Tata may not remain successful at times of surging energy prices. The would-be owners of Tata Nano have to consider the cost of replacement parts and service maintenance for the car during the period of ownership. Tata Nano is built from scratch and most of the component parts are new and do not share platform with other models in the Tata family. As a result, it is difficult to assess the vehicle’s reliability, durability and parts’ longevity. These factors along with unavailability of the model have made it difficult to estimate the cost of ownership of Tata Nano and the frequency of service trips. The overall cost of parts and services of Tata Nano is likely to be at the range of similarly sized car like Maruti 800. The perception of frequent parts breakdown and shorter service interval due to sub-standard parts and inferior
Features of Tata Nano New type of seats with integrated head rests
Plastic panels innovatively designed to eliminate the need for screws
No radio, no a/c, no passenger side mirror Similar door handles & mechanisms for left & right side doors
Just one wind-shield wiper Instrument cluster located in the center with only analog display
Rear-mounted engine layout eliminates drive-shaft (space and weight savings)
Extensive use of Hydroforming and roll-forming
Two-cylinder engine for lower cost & better fuel efficiency with Euro IV compliance
Figure 1
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Nano overseas
The rise in petrol prices makes consumers around the world to look for a low cost car. Tata seems to capture this trend and is looking forward to introduce Tata Nano beyond Indian shores. One of the countries where Tata Nano is likely to make inroads is Thailand, dubbed as the ‘Detroit of Asia’, due to its extensive vehicle manufacturing activities in ASEAN region. Thailand has introduced the ‘Eco-Car’ project, a framework laid by the government to build green cars that are fuel efficient and cost effective. Vehicle manufacturers all over the world are invited to submit plans for the Eco-car investment project in Thailand. Various incentives have been provided for manufacturers of green cars in Thailand, including exemption from corporate tax for up to eight years and duty exemption for imported machinery. However, the investment should yield an output of 100,000 units by the fifth year of production. Such initiative bodes well for Tata Nano. Tata is one of the seven manufacturers that have submitted applications for the Eco-Car project and its application has already been approved. Tata might use this plan to export to other ASEAN countries through the ASEAN free trade area agreement (AFTA). Conclusion
Tata Nano achieves what most people deemed impossible through originality and ingenuity. It is a no frills car that serves the needs of the general public
The Nano effect Should consumers wait for another low-cost model to be launched before they make the decision to buy Tata Nano? Are other car manufacturers contemplating on introducing models of similar nature? Direct competitors like Maruti, Hyundai, Bajaj and Cherry are apprehensive about the Tata Nano’s overwhelming response. They have realigned their strategies in the Indian market and some are planning to produce similar models to Tata Nano in the near future. Tata Nano is likely to encroach on the market territory of Maruti 800, a small car from Maruti Suzuki, which is priced higher than Tata Nano. Despite six percent shorter, Tata Nano has about twenty one per cent more interior space than the Maruti 800 due to its larger height and width. Suzuki is aware of the gap and is working arduously to improve its current car lineup. It will focus on achieving the practicality and efficiency of Tata Nano without compromis-
ing on safety and quality. However, Maruti Suzuki is not in a position to reduce the price of Maruti 800 just for the sake of competing with Tata Nano. Hyundai is another company taking Tata Nano seriously. Hyundai plans to launch a new model in the market which would be priced cheaper than their current cheapest model - Santro. This new car would not be released at least until 2011, and is expected to be manufactured in Hyundai’s new factory. Meanwhile, Renault and Nissan have entered into alliance with Bajaj Auto to develop a car (code-named ULC) tagged at US$ 2,500. Renault is likely to achieve this low cost proposition based on its success with the Renault Logan budget model in developing markets worldwide. Another potential competitor for Nano is China’s Chery QQ which is expected to gain foothold in the Indian market in 2008. The Chery is expected to retail about US$ 3,700.
and India’s deplorable road conditions and notorious traffic. In this sense, the production and launch of Tata Nano can be called a revolution – not only to the consumers but also to industry players. Other players are contemplating on their own versions of low cost alternatives as a result of the overwhelming response from the Indian public and all over the world during the pre-launching ceremony. Moreover, their skepticism is met with a surprise upon seeing the model in action. The next step forward for Tata is to address the possible concerns
with regard to ownership in order for customers to grasp the value proposition that Tata is trying to propagate. This includes dispelling all perceptions of shortcomings normally associated with a low-cost car through vigorous testing on real roads using real users. The basic rule of customer service still applies. Tata Nano should meet the consumer’s expectations by providing a reliable and modestly safe vehicle to drive. The car, with its immense recognition gained even before its launch, is expected to fulfill the dreams of common people.
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materials on budget cars may not hold true for Tata Nano. Tata Nano’s component parts are developed and manufactured by reputable component manufacturers like Bosch, Rico Auto, Lumax Group, Rane Group, Asahi Glass etc. Moreover, the cost of parts and services is likely to decline as more Tata Nano cars are driven on the road.
Annuar Jalaluddin is a senior consultant with the Frost & Sullivan Asia Pacific Automotive and Transportation Practice. He has vast experience in service center operation, strategic planning and dealership management. His research studies are published as articles and quotes in AAM magazine, Telematics Australia, New Straits Times and ASEAN Autobiz.
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Indian Auto Industry
Facing the challenges of new age The Indian automotive industry has been facing new challenges due to the rapid changes taking place during the last decade. This article discusses those challenges and initiatives taken by the government to overcome them.
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he Indian auto industry is changing rapidly. During the last decade, many international auto manufacturers, either by themselves or in partnership with Indian companies, have started manufacturing activities in India. The ancillary industries have also grown in tandem. The quality of production in small- and medium-scale industries has improved to such an extent that they started exporting products to international manufacturers. The major breakthrough of recent years is the unveiling of “Nano� by Tata Motors during the auto expo 2007. This has received worldwide attention and proved that India can not only design an automobile of international standards but also execute the project at a much lower cost through innovative choice of components, materials, engine design etc. These developments in the auto sector have given new confidence to everyone related to the auto industry and specifically to the government which resulted in the announcement of the Auto Policy 2006-2016 by the Ministry of Heavy Industries. According to the Auto Policy, the Indian auto sector is expected to grow to US$ 216 billion by 2016 and add 2.5 million new jobs to the economy. Every year two to three million people are expected to
purchase new vehicles. Several million vehicles and components are expected to be exported to both developed and developing nations. To achieve these goals, it is important that the present GDP growth rate, which is more than 8 per cent, continues to remain at the same level for the next 8-10 years. The government is also giving some concessions to the auto industry. To realise the above growth predictions, it is important to overcome various challenges the industry is facing currently. Two of the foremost challenges are the spiralling cost of fuel and the paucity of highly skilled manpower. Rising oil price
International price of crude oil has crossed US$ 120 per barrel and is rising at an alarming rate. The forecast of market experts that the crude oil price will plateau around US$ 100 per barrel has been proved wrong. The skyrocketting crude oil price rise will affect the economic growth of most of the nations of the world including India. The prospects of India and China of becoming economic superpower will be seriously affected. Also, the rise in oil prices will impact the growth of global automotive industry. Unless the use of alternative fuels increases, it is very unlikely that the situation will change
Ashok Kolaskar Advisor, National Knowledge Commission Managing Director, DSK Global Education and Research Pvt. Ltd. India
for the better. This necessarily means that more and more investments should be directed towards R&D, establishing mechanisms to translate R&D results into products and their efficient manufacturing. This will also require radical redesigning of engines. Human resources
The second major challenge is the creation of highly skilled human resource required for the auto industry. Auto industry, like many other industries is facing severe shortage of skilled technical as well as managerial manpower. This challenge becomes all the more daunting because faults lie at a more fundamental level of training infrastructure and the social perception. In India, engineering colleges and technology institutions impart engineering education. Many of these institutions used to provide training in automotive engineering through well-established Internal Combustion Engineering (ICE) and Mechanical Engineering departments. However, the new wave of IT, electronics and communication technology has forced these institutions to close down ICE departments and also reduce the umber of Mechanical Engineering departments. The well-known ICE department of the Indian Institute of Science that produced high quality
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DSK International Institute of Design, Animation and Gaming The establishment of DSK International Institute of Design, Animation and Gaming (I3dag) in Pune, in collaboration with one of the world’s best institutes, Institut Superieur de Design (ISD) run by the Chamber of Commerce and Industry of Valenciennois (CCIV), France, is an example of a private company venturing into transport and product design training. The institute offers a five-year integrated, full time transport design course after the completion of 12th grade. The course will be handled by experienced
The third area that needs to be addressed immediately is the shortage of human resources in auto design. The government as well as the professionals have realised that creative people in India need to be given training by which they can come into the mainstream and design contemporary products in general and autos in particular. National Institute of Design at Ahmedabad is playing a seminal role in producing good designers. However, the output of the institute is very small. Therefore, in the first of its kind National Policy of Design, the Government has suggested to establish four such institutes, immediately. Even these institutes will not be able to meet the current demand for designers. Therefore, many more institutes need to be established either through public-private partnership or solely by private sector. Conclusion
The growth of auto industry in India will be contingent not just on domestic
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research and trained manpower is a sad example of these developments. It is true that more than 50 per cent of the total components of the current automobiles are electronic and that the importance of communication technology is also increasing. However, the advances and training in these areas cannot be at the cost of the fundamental aspects of auto engineering including thermodynamics. Therefore, we need to redesign our automotive engineering courses and brand them properly to attract good students. This will help in not only increasing the number of auto engineers, which is crucial to the growth of the auto industry, but also getting the human resources to carry out research in the auto sector and achieve breakthroughs necessary for designing the next-generation vehicles. There is also an urgent need to improve the quality of skilled and semi skilled manpower working in the auto industry. To do this the existing vocational educational institutions have to be upgraded and more number of such institutes should be started. Today, most of our vocational educational institutes have poorly trained, unmotivated and uninspiring teaching faculty, and outdated equipment, machines, syllabus and governance system. National Knowledge Commission, in its recent report has given several recommendations to improve vocational training in this country. The Central Government has accepted all the recommendations. Two major recommendations are rebranding the vocational education by updating the syllabus and public-private partnership (PPP) in the establishment and governance of vocational educational institutes. Accordingly, the finance minister has allotted an initial amount of Rs. 1,000 crores in this year’s budget to establish a corporation of Rs. 15,000 crore outlay through PPP model. It is hoped that this corporation will help immensely in revolutionising and making the vocational education more relevant to the contemporary needs.
faculty from India and abroad (especially from France and other European countries). The content is designed to suit to the contemporary industry requirements. The innovative teaching methodology enables the students to get hands-on experience through projects in the industry. The institute has ultra-modern facilities including state-of-the-art workshop. Many such initiatives are needed with immediate effect since highly trained manpower is the key resource for the growth of the auto industry.
demand, but also equally on exports. Therefore, the present projections will become a reality if thrust is given to original research that will yield breakthrough results. These results help in addressing the current global concerns such as environment, fuel efficiency, need for alternate and renewable fuels and materials etc. This can happen only through a consortium approach where various auto companies and academic institutions work together as in the case of IT hardware industry. The consortium approach should be extended to address the trained human resource shortage as well. The government should act as a facilitator by bringing about necessary changes in the current laws that will encourage private participation. Finally, there should be mechanisms in place that will ensure that there is a balance in the pool of human resources comprising research scientists, managers, engineers, designers, technicians, and skilled and semiskilled workers.
Ashok Kolaskar is an advisor to National Knowledge Commission, India. He has identified several areas in need of the Commission’s scrutiny and has worked in formulating recommendations and reports to the Hon’ble Prime Minister. His career of over 31 years is marked by numerous accomplishments in bioinformatics research, teaching, mentoring, higher education reforms, and managing large institutions with outstanding success.
materials
Rising raw material cost and regulatory pressure are forcing automotive manufacturers to design vehicles that can be easily recycled. Fabrice Abraham Recycling Engineering Manager Renault France
Design for Recycling The Renault way
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he complete recycling of a vehicle is a long process that requires the involvement of many participants: dismantlers, recyclers, industries that use recycled materials, shredders etc. The success of the entire recycling chain depends largely on the efforts of automotive manufacturers to make its work easier. This is why in the new millennium, Renault has taken initiatives to “Design for Recycling.� Each of us is now aware that the planet’s resources are limited and are fast depleting. With this understand-
ing comes the growing consensus that recycling is essential. It has become second nature to sort domestic waste. The recent implementation of an ecotax in France on household appliances has been well accepted. Awareness has also increased rapidly with the recent spike in raw material costs, an indication of the growing imbalance between supply and demand. The automobile industry is no doubt one of the pioneers in this field. Indeed, for sometime now the bodies of most end-of-life vehicles have been recovered by specialised paths. But this is no longer enough.
Cars are not made solely of metal. One must therefore try to recycle the rest of its components, especially polymers. However, this is a challenging task because it requires the establishment of economically viable recycling chains, organised by major categories of materials. Automotive manufacturers are unable to cater to all the aspects of the issue. Nevertheless, Renault has decided to do as much as possible to facilitate the emergence and success of these paths by incorporating the demands of recycling into the design of its vehicles.
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Phases of recycling % Weight Landfill
5% max.
Recoverability 85%
Airbags deployment Fluids removing Dismantling for depollution (Battery, mercury bulb...)
The first step consists of removing all elements that could harm the environment or compromise recycling from the end-of-life vehicle. The main operations are - neutralisation of potentially explosive components (airbags, pretensioners), draining of all fluids (fuel, oil, coolant, brake fluid, shock absorber fluid, etc.), removal of tyres etc. The components listed in Appendix 1 of European Directive 2000/53/EC on end-of-life vehicles and components that could contain heavy metals such as lead or mercury, e.g. catalytic converters, batteries, mercury bulbs etc, are also removed.
Disassembling Next, all recoverable parts and materialsglass, large plastic components (bumpers, dashboards, interior trims etc.), seat foams,
European regulatory framework
Responding to the public concerns about recycling, the European Community adopted two directives that now serve as a framework for car manufacturers. European Directive 2000/53/EC
In effect since 2000, the first directive sets forth several principles. First, automakers must consider reuse, recycling and recovery of parts and materials
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Dismantling for recycling path Windshield, glass bumpers, seat foam, polymer parts...
Phase 3: Shredding and metallic sorting
Phase 2: Dismantling
Pre-treatment or depollution
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Phase 4: Sorting Automotive Shredding Residues
Energy recovery
10% max.
Recoverability 95%
Europe will have approximately 6000 dismantling points equipped for an average processing rate of around 25 vehicles per day. Thus these are, for the most part, average-sized structures that must be able to handle vehicles of all origins and all brands. Given the diversity of models, it will be very difficult for them to fully standardise their processes. Thus arises the importance of taking this concern into account upstream in the design of vehicles, to avoid making dismantlers’ work more complicated and undermining their profitability. Recycling end-of-life vehicles can be divided into four major processes (Figure 1).
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Phase 1: Pre-treatment Figure 1
trunk trim etc. are removed from the vehicle, based on the procedures established by dismantlers. These parts are then sorted by materials category so that they can be reused or recycled. Note that the volume of dismantled parts varies depending on the metal mass of the vehicles. One does not remove as many parts from a Logan, a minivan or a 4x4.
dirt etc.) constitutes what is referred to as automobile shredder residues.
Residue processing
The partially processed vehicle is placed in a shredder. The fragments are sorted by material type - steel, non-ferrous metal. These metallic materials will be recycled by existing paths. All that remains (plastics, rubber, foam,
The automotive shredder residues are sorted to isolate the mineral components, such as glass, from the organic material (plastics, rubber, etc.) that can be used as substitute combustible materials. The remaining residues are placed in industrial landfills. Renault is trying to promote the emergence of companies which go further with shredder residue sorting via Research and Development studies in order to further maximise plastics recycling.
during the design phase for all new vehicles. This “theoretical” requirement is combined with a series of quotas staggered in time, the most important of which is scheduled for 2015. By that time, all end-of-life vehicles must be 85 per cent recycled and 95 per cent recovered. In other words, on that date, 85 per cent of the vehicle’s mass must embark on a second life, 10 per cent can
be recovered for energy production and the remaining 5 per cent can be sent to industrial landfills. In parallel, the directive requests that manufacturers boost the percentage of recycled materials used in their vehicles in order to promote the emergence and development of the recycling industry. The regulations require the marking of all parts made
Shredding and sorting
materials
of polymers weighing more than 100g and all elastomer parts weighing over 200g. Moreover, it asks that certain regulated substances, or substances that could be regulated, be clearly identified on the vehicle to facilitate their recycling. Finally, the directive without really specifying the terms mentions that it will be the responsibility of car manufacturers to pay residual costs, if any, to meet the quotas. These are, evidently, very restrictive objectives that could generate major expenses if they are not met by 2015. European Directive 2005/64/EC
The second, more recent (November 2005) major directive on recycling contains two important points. It asks car manufacturers to present to the European authorities a recycling strategy based on proven technologies for a specific geographic area. Such a strategy should, for example, indicate what the manufacturer intends to do with polypropylene or glass in a given country, to which recycling path the materials shall be directed. It is true that recycling cannot be mandated—it presupposes the existence of economically viable industrial support and a favourable climate. The second point addressed in this directive is that by the end of 2008, for all new vehicle types entering the market, the manufacturers must prove that the models are indeed 85 per cent recyclable in their previously mentioned recycling strategy. Therefore, manufacturers must prove the recycling potential of the vehicles they manufacture and market. However, it should be noted that by 2010, this requirement shall no longer apply only to new models, but to all vehicles sold, including those designed before, hence Renault’s proactive approach.
Vessels and Fuel Tank
Figure 2
explained with simple examples ranging from a “common sense” solution (particularly for parts affected by the pre-processing phase) to more ambitious solutions that take into account the constraints of materials recyclers are discussed in the following passages. Windshield wiper fluid vessel
During vehicle development, windshield wiper fluid vessel is one of the last items to be assigned a spot in the engine compartment. Frankly, it is positioned wherever room is remaining in the compartment. The disadvantage from a recycling point of view is that it is often difficult to access and has a complicated shape, which makes the removal of fluid a tricky manoeuver for the dismantlers. To make their job easier, Renault has
defined technical specifications so that it is possible to insert a hollow rod into the tank’s lowest level and suction all remaining fluid. Fuel tank
For the moment there is only one satisfactory solution for removing fuel from the tank: perforate it with a hollow rod and suction it out. But it is important that the perforation be made at the lowest point so that all of the fluid can be removed and that it be made at an appropriate location to avoid the risk of sparks when perforated. This is why Renault decided to use recycling logos to visually identify the best suited points on its fuel tanks. A similar approach is applied with markings on the shock absorbers.
Laguna III - Panel door trim
3 Markings visible by the customer Cutting ½ door panel
Renault “Design for Recycling”
Since 2000, Renault has integrated recycling into the genes of its new models through a “design for recycling” approach. Renault’s approach is
Polypropylene Recycling path Figure 3
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Twingo II Recycled plastic
Inclusion of recyclers’ constraints
One of the challenges of recycling is to promote the development of economically viable businesses in the areas where automotive manufacturers sell their vehicles. Certainly one of the conditions of this viability is to somehow facilitate the work of “recyclers”, for any additional sorting operation, whether manual or automated, will necessarily entail an increase in expenses, therefore a loss in value for the recycler. Renault is one of the automotive manufacturers that have pushed the knowledge of upstream materials recycling processes the furthest. For example, we have analysed in great detail the polypropylene recycling process (which is the most used plastic in our vehicles) to prevent the design of anything that would pollute the polypropylene content removed during materials sorting—presence of parasite polymers of equal density, materials incompatible with the polypropylene process such as PVC, glued textiles, overly large metallic inserts etc. Considering these limitations, Renault has created educational and design guidance tools to be used by all design engineers. These documents are often cited as a reference in the parts’ technical specifications. In the case of parts that are complex to recycle, such as the door panels on the New Laguna, there are also design
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Use of recycled materials
Because the definition of recycled material is debatable, Renault has chosen to adopt ISO Standard 14021. Renault has been carrying out an ambitious recycling policy since the 1990s notably since the launch of the Clio, which was the first vehicle to use recycled materials (wheel housing liner). Since then, from one model to the next, Renault has continuously increased the volume of recycled materials—Megane II has 16kg, Modus has 18kg and the new Laguna uses more than 32kg of recycled material. We have lofty goals for our new projects. Our objective is to have 20 per cent of recycled plastic in our new vehicles by 2015. A uthor
Figure 4
solutions. This panel is formed from multiple polymers and is very difficult, if not impossible, to recycle as it is (Figure 3). Thus, to make it easier to recycle, we worked to the extent that all of its elements (speaker covers, shock absorbers etc.) located in the lower part of the panel be made entirely of polypropylene. Recyclers can cut along the visible markings to recover and recycle more than 1.5 kilograms of matter per panel. This innovation has been patented and is visible to our customers, thanks to the affixing of the conventional logo to symbolise this recycling.
Recycled materials are usually perceived as being a second choice, and yet this is not a foregone conclusion. It is believed that a well-recycled material can maintain a value close to that of the original material with characteristics identical to the replaced product. One of the innovations in this vein was the introduction of, for the first time in the Megane II, decorative parts made from recycled plastic, whereas this material had previously been relegated to equipment areas that are not visible to the customer. As for Modus, it contains one of the largest parts ever made from this type of material-the dashboard structure with a weight of 4.5 kilogrammes. This part must combine structural requirements with thermal requirements (it also serves as an air passage for climate control). The new Laguna with more than 90 parts made from recycled materials is the most striking example. Conclusion
In a market where the price of raw materials is unstable, Renault has endeavoured to minimise the cost of recycling, while avoiding losses in the value of materials used in its vehicles when they are recycled. Renault’s great strength lies in the fact that its designers are developing parts with the aim of incorporating the “Design for Recycling” criterion in the earliest upstream phases of product development. Due to early planning (2000) for the requirements of European directives and a pragmatic approach to recycling by integrating future European recycling scenarios, Renault has taken many steps toward reaching the 2015 targets at a lower cost.
Fabrice Abraham is the Manager of the team “Design for Recycling” at Renault, and is in charge of integrating recyclability, recycled material and substances management in the new vehicle development.
materials
Reinventing Automotive Steel
For environmentally friendlier vehicles Steel is reinventing itself to lower the Green House Gas (GHG) output of cars and trucks at little or no additional cost to automotive manufacturers or consumers.
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e know that climate change is a critical issue. Whether you believe in global warming or not, actions to reduce energy use and negative effects on the environment are important. Continued success across industries including transportation is contingent on improving environmental performance. On a global basis, automotive steel is reinventing itself and is helping to reduce automotive greenhouse gas emissions (GHG). Advanced High Strength Steel (AHHS)
New grades of Advanced High Strength Steel from steel companies around the globe provide lighter, optimised body designs that enable improved vehicle crashworthiness, improved fuel economy and lower total greenhouse gas emissions. So how does Advanced High Strength Steel compare to conventional steel? AHSS such as DualPhase, Transformation Induced Plasticity (TRIP) and Martensitic Steels provide unique characteristics because they have very high strength, and yet can be easily formed to make complex automotive parts. For a typical 5-passenger compact vehicle, evidence shows that replacing former conventional steel designs with optimised AHSS designs will, on average, gain:
• 25 per cent reduction in body structure weight • 9 per cent reduction in the vehicle weight • 5.1 per cent reduced fuel consumption • 5.7 per cent reduced lifecycle GHG emissions And, all this is accomplished with little or no increase in manufacturing costs. The advantages of AHSS in meeting auto makers’ goals are well recognised by the design community and have been incorporated into nearly every new vehicle design. Steel makes
Edward G Opbroek Director, WorldAutoSteel International Iron and Steel Institute USA
up more than 50 per cent of today’s vehicles and is the predominant material of vehicle body structures. Today, it is a common practice for a high percentage of the body structures to be manufactured using AHSS. And because of this, AHSS has become the fastest growing material in automotive body structures, which is helping reduce GHG emissions. Measuring vehicles’ impact
One of the challenges concerning automotive emission regulations is to achieve the intended control without
Life cycle analysis in automotive industry System Boundary
Raw material extraction
Disposal
Material production
Recycling
Production
Use & Maintenance Figure 1
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creating unintended consequences or unexpected results. Climate change and energy concerns prompt more aggressive fuel economy or tailpipe emission regulations. Of course, fuel economy or tailpipe emissions are important factors, but, all phases of the vehicle’s life—from materials production through the end-of-life disposal of the vehicle—should be considered in order to get a complete picture of the vehicle’s impact on the environment. Many of you are familiar with Life Cycle Analysis, or Life Cycle Assessment (LCA). In the automotive industry, LCA has only recently become a subject that is broadly discussed (Figure 1). We feel strongly that both approaches—tailpipe emission regulations and life cycle analysis have usefulness in looking at the issue. A recent study by Dr Roland Geyer at the University of California, Santa Barbara, developed a very good comparison model for use in evaluating GHG emissions related to automotive materials. The model provides a well-documented methodology for evaluating different material choices when designing automobiles. The model demonstrates that, in many cases, choice of low-density materials may lead to increased GHG emissions during the production phase of a vehicle, which may more than offset reductions during the vehicle’s use phase that are achieved by small amounts of mass reduction. An LCA approach assists auto makers in evaluating and reducing the total energy consumed and the lifetime GHG emissions of their products. The regulations that are based only on the vehicle use-phase may encourage the use of GHG-intensive materials that help in manufacturing lighter weight components, but they end up with the unexpected result of increased GHG emissions during the vehicle’s total life cycle. A full life cycle assessment methodology reveals that
Environmental impact and life cycle analysis (GHG) CO2eq
end-of-life recycling credits
aluminium vehicle use steel material & vehicle production driven distance
Total Life Figure 2
the production of alternative materials like aluminum, magnesium and plastics, require much more energy, and contribute 5 to 20 times more GHG emissions per kg than steel (Figure 2). This means that during the production stages, an alternative material vehicle will load the environment with significantly more GHG emissions than that of a steel vehicle. In Figure 3, using the University of California LCA comparison model,
we show an AHSS vehicle (represented by the blue line) and an aluminium vehicle (represented by the yellow line). Notice that the aluminium vehicle creates less GHG emissions during the vehicle use phase because it is slightly lighter. However, the aluminium vehicle releases a significantly higher level of GHG emissions during the material production phase. The two bars at the right side of the Figure 3 represent the total life cycle
Case study examples Curb Weight (Kilograms)
CO2 eq (Kilograms)
1,200
36,000 -9.3%
-3.0%
-5.7%
900
27,000
600
18,000
300
9,000 -25%
0
2.6%
-11%
Conventional AHSS Aluminum Steels Vehicle Mass other components body in white
0
54.2% Conventional AHSS Aluminum Steels Total GHG Emissions
use phase material phase Figure 3
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emissions of an Advanced High Strength Steel-intensive vehicle (blue bar) and an aluminium-intensive vehicle (yellow bar). Use-phase only regulations can lead auto manufacturers to select GHG-intensive materials that may improve the use phase but leave the total life cycle greenhouse gas emissions unchecked. In other words, these regulations lead to unintended consequences or wrong choices from the planet’s point of view. Here we illustrate two case study examples of life cycle assessment using the University of California Santa Barbara comparison model. These case studies are based on automotive body structure materials for a 5-passenger compact vehicle with a gasoline internal combustion engine. As you see in the three bars at the left-hand side of Figure 3, going from conventional steels to optimised AHSS results in 25 per cent mass reduction of the body structure and 9.3 per cent reduction of the total vehicle weight. If you go from an AHSS vehicle to an aluminum design, you achieve a further mass reduction of 11 per cent in the body structure.
Next, move to the three bars on the right-hand side of the slide. The UCSB model calculates total life cycle GHG emissions for the same vehicle using difference materials – conventional steel, AHSS, and aluminum. Compare the orange bar on the right with the blue bar on the right. This is the situation of ‘steel re-inventing itself ’ and replacing former steel materials and design with new steel materials and design. The effect of 25 per cent mass reduction in the body-in-white is to reduce CO2 equivalent or GHG emissions in both the material production and use phase so that the vehicle’s total life cycle emissions are reduced by 5.7 per cent. It should also be pointed out that this steel re-invention is accomplished at little or no additional cost. Now, compare the aluminum bar on the right – which shows an optimised aluminum design compared with the orange AHSS bar. Even with some additional mass savings achieved with aluminum, the increase of CO2 equivalent (GHG) emissions from the material production phase more than offsets the reductions due to somewhat lighter weight in the use phase. The vehicle’s
Impact of changing automotive technologies
Life Time kg of CO2 equiv.
LCA CO2 equiv. Allocation - MSR
total life cycle emissions are increased by 2.6 per cent. To add insult to injury, this environmental burden also comes with a significant cost increase. Although material decisions to achieve vehicle mass reduction are important, the impact of material production on life cycle emissions are relatively small compared to total emissions, as you see in the left-hand two bars of this baseline comparison between an AHSS intensive vehicle and an aluminum intensive vehicle. As we move to the right with the comparison bars, you see that significant improvements in reducing automotive GHG emissions will not be made by material substitution alone. The other comparison bars show the impact of changing automotive technologies on GHG emissions. The use of advanced powertrains (such as hybrids), more efficient fuels (such as grain and cellulose ethanol), and improved driving cycles, can result in a dramatic reduction in the use phase emissions. As other technologies that improve vehicle GHG emissions are implemented in mainstream vehicle designs, the emissions from material production becomes relatively more important in the total life cycle. This places greater emphasis on selecting low GHG-intensive materials such as steel. For example, compare the first and last two bars in Figure 4. When new technologies are utilised, GHG emissions from the materials production phase grow in relative proportion from 9-23 per cent of the total because the use-phase emissions are reduced. Future steel vehicle — A new initiative
9% Conventional Gas Engine AHSS Material
23% Hybrid Engine
Use Phase
Grain E85
Cellulose E85 Aluminum Material
Improved Driving Cycle Use Phase
As the global automotive steel continues to re-invent itself, WorldAutoSteel also wants to position steel for the future. To that end, WorldAutoSteel has begun a multi-million dollar new initiative called Future Steel Vehicle.
Figure 4
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will provide input for Phase II design concepts. Steel industry’s ongoing commitment
Future Steel Vehicle is the fifth in a series of global auto steel research projects that have been undertaken by the global steel industry. The previous four – UltraLight Steel Auto Body, known as ULSAB, UltraLight Steel Auto Closures, Suspensions, and ULSAB-AVC (Advanced Vehicle Concepts), represented over sixty
A uthor
This new initiative will develop steel auto body concepts that address alternative powertrains such as advanced hybrid, electric, and fuel cell systems. The goal of the research is to demonstrate safe, light weight steel bodies for future vehicles that reduce GHG emissions over the entire life cycle. Future Steel Vehicle will consist of three phases over as many years: a Phase I will include an Engineering Study; Phase II will develop Concept Designs; and Phase III will build Demonstration Hardware. WorldAutoSteel commissioned EDAG Engineering and Design AG, headquartered in Fulda, Germany to complete the first phase Engineering Study. Development work will be based at EDAG’s facility in Michigan. Phase I will examine changes affected by new powertrain systems that may radically change the structure of automobiles and
million dollars in steel industry investment. These programs demonstrated the application of new steel grades, design techniques and manufacturing technologies that significantly reduced vehicle weight while improving safety and performance, and maintaining affordability. Future Steel Vehicle focusses on radical change in the future and is further evidence of the steel industry’s commitment to solutions that benefit the environment, automakers and end consumers.
Edward G Opbroek is director of WorldAutoSteel–the Automotive Group of the International Iron and Steel Institute. He was the former director of the ULSAB (UltraLight Steel Auto Body) and ULSAB-AVC (Advanced Vehicle Concepts). He has extensive experience in product development, application engineering, steel production operations management, and marketing/sales with AK Steel Corporation and Armco Steel in the fields of construction and automotive products. He holds a Masters Degree in Business Administration from the University of Missouri.
ENGINE AND CHASSIS
Diesel Engines
Potential, possibilities and challenges Alternative fuels from regenerative sources (e.g. BTL) will especially gain importance in the same proportion as the shortage of fossil fuels increases due to the global trend of increasing mobility.
A
gainst the background of European and international legislations, exhaust gas treatment will play a further superior role to fulfil future emission limits – draft of the Commission for Euro V emission limits for passenger cars. In addition to the emission limits, area-wide immission limits for particulate matter (PM10) of 50µg/ m³ for the 24 hour mean and 40µg/ m³ for the annual mean are in force in Germany and in all the EC member states. Furthermore, a limit for the annual mean NOx immission level of 40μg/m3 will come into force in 2010. The classic trade-off between particle and NOx emission will dissolve due to the predictably broad application of particulate filters in EURO V passenger car diesel engines and in EURO VI truck diesel engines. Now, in the context of more stringent NOx emission limits and the corresponding engine-internal NOx reduction strategies, new trade-offs come to the fore—unburned Hydrocarbons vs. NOx and fuel consumption vs. NOx. Therefore, the target must be to select an NOx treatment system which operates as selectively and efficiently as possible without putting the efficiency advantage of the diesel engine into question. Observation of acceptable system cost limits and conflict free adjustment of the functionalities of combined exhaust gas treatment solutions of the future,
consisting of DPF and DeNOx (SCR, NSC) systems, will be of special importance. A broader acceptance of directinjection gasoline engines is to be expected, if their significant fuel consumption reduction potential is realised. Catalysts with broad operation range (temperature window), high conversion rates, little ageing susceptibility and sufficient robustness against sulphur contamination are prerequisites for such future success. The research results of homogeneous combustion processes in diesel and gasoline engines are, despite positive findings for the neutralisation of NOx and particulate emissions, also characterised by significantly increased CO and unburnt HC emissions. Current catalyst concepts appear not completely adequate to fulfil future emission limits and need to be improved if the developments in the field of homogeneous combustion achieve a breakthrough. New / Future fuels
Liquid mineral fuels from crude oil are expected to play an important role for automotive uses during the next 20 years. Additionally, alternative fuels from regenerative sources (e.g. BTL biomass to liquid) are going to achieve higher share. These fuels are typically free of sulphur and aromatics and they include a high cetane number. Decreasing availability of fossil fuels,
Horst Harndorf Professor Department of Piston Machines and Internal Combustion Engines University of Rostock Germany
environmental needs such as the reduction of green house effect and a global trend of increasing mobility are reasons for a raised interest in alternative fuels. Furthermore, the implementation of the EC-directive 2003/30/EG prescribes a market share of 5.75 per cent for biogenous fuels in 2010. Synthetic fuel can be attained from natural gas (Gas to Liquid = GTL), coal (Coal to Liquid = CTL) and biomass (BTL) using the Fischer-TropschSyntheses. Because of its regenerative nature, BTL offers considerable CO2 reduction potential. This kind of fuel is free of sulphur and aromatics while having a high cetane number. It fits well into the existing fuel infrastructure. The quality of synthetic diesel fuel is considered to be independent from its source, i.e. fossil or regenerative. Synthetic fuel does not fulfil the European standard EN 590 for diesel fuel. The tests conducted with engines running on these alternative fuels indicated an average reduction in the emission of particulate matter, CO and unburnt HC by 41, 90 and 46 per cent respectively. The EURO IV PM limit could already be fulfilled with a EURO III application passenger car simply by switching the fuel. Perspective
In the future, innovative combustion processes will play an outstanding role in the reduction of the harmful components in the engine-out emissions.
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New combustion processes
The trials at stationary conditions proved that this combustion process results in
significantly reduced particle (soot) as well as NOx emissions. At the same time, HC and CO emissions increased by a factor of up to five compared to the conventional diesel combustion process. This is attributed to the increase in maximum allowable pressure increase in the cylinder. Fuel consumption, as a function of the allowed noise emission, is in the range of current serial engines. Significantly increased CO and HC emissions were mainly due to long mixing times, low combustion and exhaust gas temperatures as they are found during homogeneous operation. Present catalyst concepts (DOC) do not seem to fulfil all necessary demands to comply with future emission limits. Further development is still required. It is worth mentioning here that the air / fuel path as well as the combustion chamber design need to meet all the requirements and boundary conditions linked to homogeneous as well as to conventional (heterogeneous) mixing and combustion modes including transient switch-over between both operation modes.
Such combustion processes could either avoid expensive and complex exhaust gas treatment systems or reduce the loading of these systems. In addition to the emission limits, the fuel consumption targets of the automotive industry (conservation of resources, CO2 commitment) must be met. Considering the above mentioned propositions, it is possible to further progress in the engine internal reduction of critical exhaust gas emission components. The availability of high-quality synthetic fuels, which are virtually free of sulphur as well as aromatic components and have high cetane numbers is of growing importance,
as it provides enough scope for the innovations in combustion processes. Alternative fuels from regenerative sources (e.g. BTL) will especially gain importance in the same proportion as the shortage of fossil fuels increases due to the global trend of increasing mobility. Growing requirements of exhaust gas treatment systems are expected against the background of increasingly stringent European and international exhaust gas emission limits. Thus, in a medium-term perspective, fulfilment of these targets can only be obtained by synchronised progress in the areas of combustion process development and exhaust gas treatment.
A uthor
Besides thermodynamic fine tuning, innovative combustion processes will play an important role to decrease exhaust gas raw emissions in the future. Thus, expensive and complex exhaust gas treatment systems can be avoided or their load can be reduced. At part load conditions, homogeneous diesel combustion processes can result in almost particle and NOx free exhaust gas, while keeping acceptable engine efficiency. Prerequisite is the temporal separation of injection event and combustion process by means of significantly prolonged ignition delays. Intake air dilution by means of exhaust gas recirculation or exhaust gas residuals in the cylinder is an essential parameter to achieve appropriate ignition delays. In combination with an optimised compression ratio and improved controllable EGR-cooling it seems possible to implement homogeneous combustion in the whole New European Driving Cycle (NEDC).
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Horst Harndorf is a Professor of Piston and Combustion Engines at the University of Rostock. His career graph also includes being the group leader for injection and combustion technology in the central research and advanced engineering department, Robert Bosch GmbH and scientific assistant at the Association for Combustion Engine Research, Frank-furt/Main, supervising the project “acceleration-induced smoke discharge in supercharged diesel engines; causes and remedial action.”
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BOOK Shelf
Bosch Automotive Handbook Editor: Robert Bosch GmbH Year of Publication: 2008 Pages: 1199 Description The BOSCH handbook series on different automotive technologies has become one of the most definitive sets of reference books that automotive engineers have at their disposal. This new edition of the highly regarded and easy to use reference contains just about anything relevant to automobile design, development and quality engineering. This book provides concise technical data and insights with contributions by experts from automotive manufacturers, universities and Bosch itself. Primary features of this book includes: • 23 revised and expanded subjects as well as 26 new subjects. • 1,000+ diagrams, illustrations, sectional drawings and tables. • Contains handy conversion charts and an easy-to-use topic index. This book will benefit automotive engineers and design engineers, automotive technicians in training and mechanics and technicians in garages. It may also be of interest to teachers/ lecturers and students at vocational colleges, and enthusiasts.
For more books, visit Knowledge Bank section of www.autofocusasia.com
ENGINE AND CHASSIS
Renewable Methane The potential alternative
Renewable methane offers a solution to fuel security and to the problem of waste disposal.
I
n the search for alternatives to gasoline and diesel for fuelling Europe’s vehicles, renewable methane is making a strong challenge with new high performance cars and vans coming to market in Germany in 2008. This article reviews the overall UK energy market and shows the significant developments that are taking place in relation to transportation. The UK energy market
The UK has a very mature gas market, with a network valued at around US$ 50 billion and with more than 90 per cent of all UK consumers having a gas supply. 90 per cent of the UK’s heating energy and 50 per cent of its electricity generated comes from natural gas. The third source of demand for energy–transportation – is 99.9 per cent based on petroleum. The total energy from renewables is around 1.5 per cent of the total, with a long way to go for the UK to meet the target of 15 per cent agreed with the European Union (EU) for 2020. The UK Government supports a high price for carbon to make it ‘less economic’ to use coal and natural gas for power generation and to support the relaunch of a nuclear electricity generation industry in the UK. This industry has seen a decline in recent years as nuclear generation plants built in the 1960s have been closed down. A high CO2 price with obligations on electricity suppliers to source an
increasing proportion of their generation from renewable sources, also supports investment in renewable energy including wind and biomethane. The key initiatives taken by the UK government to address a major challenge of achieving the 15 per cent renewable target by 2020, are: • By 2016, new homes should be carbon neutral, which means these homes should have very high levels of insulation to reduce energy demand and the use of on-site electricity generation from wind and solar. It appears that natural gas based power from the grid does not fit easily in a carbon neutral home • Large financial incentives for offshore wind generation projects and for renewable methane from anaerobic digesters (ADs) • Expansion of the EU Emissions Trading Scheme to include transportation from 2012 • Reduction in vehicle fuel consumption, with an EU emissions target of 130g of CO2/km by 2012 for new vehicles (which represents around a 25 per cent increase in fuel efficiency from today) • Obligations on petrol and diesel suppliers to have five per cent bioethanol and five per cent biodiesel in their fuel. There are two other factors that are helpful to the UK government in meeting the 2020 target, contributing to lower energy demand from higher energy efficiency:
John Baldwin Managing Director CNG Services Ltd UK
• High oil prices, with US$ 100 per bbl seeming more like a central case than would have been believed two or three years ago • Sharp decline in oil and gas production in the UK, which is now importing both oil and gas and is on target to import around 1mn bbls/day by 2015. That will cost a lot of money and is causing the UK Government to start looking at reducing this burden. Although there are many options for electricity generation and heating homes, the greatest challenge has been running vehicles on something other than gasoline or diesel. During 2004-2007, biodiesel and bioethanol were seen as better alternative fuels. Unfortunately, a raft of reports in the last three months indicate major difficulties with first generation biofuels made from vegetable oil, sugar cane and wheat. As a result, the UK Government has launched an enquiry into liquid biofuels and the EU has admitted that its policy may be flawed and there are growing concerns related to overall CO2 performance (biofuels may not be very effective and may even increase global warming emissions), sustainability (accelerated rain forest destruction) and impact on world food prices. The EU has recognised that the biofuels target of five per cent by 2010 may be unhelpful for the planet. Against all that background, something transformational is happening with respect to biomethane as a fuel for vehicles. The key of course, is the vehicle.
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The first natural gas vehicles developed in the UK in the 1990s were petrol vehicles converted to run on natural gas. The first filling stations were built on the site of British Gas depots located on local ‘gasholders’ where gas is stored. Unfortunately, the gas was ‘wet’ and led to problems with both the vehicles and the filling stations. It is only now that the UK NGV industry has been able to get over the poor CNG experiences that it had as a ‘first mover’ in respect to NGVs. Mercedes Benz and Volkswagen vans launched
Taking advantage of developments in Europe, UK is restarting the CNG industry. On March 03, 2008, at the Biomethane for Transport Conference, Mercedes Benz and Volkswagen announced that they would make available the new CNG vans, developed for the German market, in the UK. The MB Sprinter CNG is being launched in Germany in June 2008 and will be available in the UK (in right hand drive form) by end 2008. Its key characteristics are: • Runs on CNG but also has a back-up petrol capability • Total range of 1100km • 1.8 litre engine, turbocharged • Estimated Premium of US$ 6000 over the diesel Sprinter • Fuel consumption of around 13km per kg of fuel (around 40 per cent of the equivalent diesel cost)
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• Emissions standard – EEV (Environmentally Enhanced Vehicle) VW’s Caddy Ecofuel, a car developed by Volkswagen that runs on CNG, will also be available in right hand drive form in the UK by Q4 2008, with its key characteristics as follows: • Runs on CNG but also has a back up petrol capability • Total range of 550km • 2.0 litre engine • Premium over the diesel Caddy estimated at US$ 2000 • CO2 per km around 20 per cent less than for the gasoline Caddy • Fuel consumption of around 18km per kg of fuel (around 40 per cent of the equivalent diesel cost) MB Econic CNG
In addition, MB announced that the CNG Econic was now available in the UK in right hand drive form, with a number of alternatives: • Tractor unit (35 tonne) • Rigid (26 tonne) • Refuse collection vehicle The rigid is put to trials by a major UK supermarket group, with major advantages due to significantly lower noise which allows it to run into London during the night (when diesel trucks are banned due to noise). This will avoid congestion and save significant time, as well as having EV standard emissions, far cleaner than any diesel vehicle.
Depot based and home-fill model
There are no plans for the UK to follow the German model, which aims to have 1000 CNG filling stations by 2009 (750 at present), used by around 100,000 cars and vans. Instead, the UK is following a depot-based model, with CNG filling stations built at utility depots and distribution centres. CNG Services has worked with a number of companies to identify that significant benefits can be achieved by replacing existing diesel vans with CNG ones. In addition, Canadian company FuelMaker is testing Phill, a home refuelling device, and fuel provided by Mouchel plc and CNG Services Ltd., with VW’s Caddy Ecofuel. This will potentially offer a CNG option to home based technicians who do not visit a depot. The fuel - Biomethane
The UK produces the largest volume of renewable methane (biomethane) in Europe, around one million tonnes of oil equivalent. This arises because the UK disposes of around 40 million tonnes per annum of organic waste by putting it into landfill. There it decays into methane, which is captured and burnt in reciprocating spark ignition engines to make electricity, at an average thermal efficiency of around 30 per cent. Even though efficiency of this form of electricity is poor, it receives a renewable premium of around US$ 90 per MWh. The UK government
ENGINE AND CHASSIS
Injection of biomethane into the national gas grid
The regulations in UK allow renewable methane to be injected into the gas distribution network and this is seen as a highly efficient way of getting this gas to consumers, whether for vehicle use, for heating or electricity. The renewable gas must meet the quality specification of the distribution network with the following contaminants removed in a clean-up process: • Water (must meet a low water dewpoint) • H2S (down to 3ppm) • CO2 (down to total inert level of 7 per cent)
Next, the gas has to meet a minimum calorific value (CV) which is in the range of 38-41 MJ/m3. This is likely to require enrichment with small volumes of propane as the renewable methane has a CV of around 36 MJ/m3. The gas has to have a characteristic smell added (i.e. an odorant), which is added via a ‘wick’ system, with a small amount of smell added as gas flows over the wick. All these processes are relatively straightforward and can be carried out by skid-mounted equipment. Once the gas meets the necessary quality standards, it is metered and injected into the gas grid. Compelling vision
The UK currently disposes of 30-40 million tonnes of organic waste to landfill each year. Even if 25 per cent A uthor
has recognised that it is not efficient to waste 70 per cent of the energy from the biomethane and is consulting the industry for amendments to legislation that would maintain the financial incentives for biomethane production, but allow the gas to be injected into the gas grid and consumed in higher efficiency applications or used to displace gasoline as a road fuel.
(10 million tonnes) of this is diverted to AD, nearly 400,000 tonnes of renewable methane would be produced. This requires around 200 ADs, each processing 60,000 tonnes of organic waste and making around 2,000 tonnes of renewable methane. Each AD could fuel around 120 Econic tractors doing 80,000km each or around 2600 Caddys each running 15,000km. It is a compelling vision: Supermarket waste to AD to gas grid to Supermaket Delivery vehicle. In the UK, this is set to transform the waste industry, reducing oil imports, air pollution and noise, with increasing energy security at the same time making a significant contribution to the UK target of producing 15 per cent of energy from renewable sources by 2020.
John Baldwin is the managing director, CNG Services Ltd. He holds C Eng M I Mech E, M I Gas E, MA (Oxon) degrees. John is a former president of the Society of British Gas Industries and is the director of Natural Gas Vehicle Association. Baldwin, a graduate engineer from Oxford University, has worked in various designs, operational and commercial roles in British Gas.
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Powertrain
Duel of the eco-champions Diesel engines, which have long been neglected, are back in the reckoning in North America.
H
Kevin Hauser Vice President Ricardo Strategic Consulting USA
ybrids are the future of the US market, was the consensus outlook for light vehicle sales in North America, until May 2007. But a very different picture of the future US automotive scene is emerging – a picture in which the diesel, all but ignored for 20 years, has a pivotal role to play. The conclusions of an extensive research project into the future of the US automotive market, carried out by Ricardo and analysts from the Global Equity Research team of UBS, upset some widely cherished views on the future of the US automotive market.
focus amid concerns regarding the perceived over-dependence on imported oil from politically volatile parts of the world, and the issue of long-term energy supply as finite oil resources are subject to increasing competition from the rapidly developing parts of the world such as China and India. Ten US states, comprising 30 per cent of US vehicle demand, have already acted to regulate CO2 emissions and are drafting new rules calling for a 30 per cent reduction in CO2 output (corresponding to a 30 per cent improvement in fuel economy) by 2016.
Hybrid advantages and incentives
Greenhouse gases – The new ‘emissions problem’
Diesels versus hybrids – The key debate
While considered conjecture over the last twenty years, it is now widely accepted that the emission of greenhouse gases (GHGs) such as CO2 resulting from human activity is the main contributor to global warming. This concern is leading to a growing public and political appetite for measures aimed at limiting CO2, not least in the US, and while the transportation sector generates only around a quarter of the total manmade GHG emissions, it is perhaps the most visible target for action. In the US, this emerging consensus for action is in part driven by parallel concerns over national energy security. In December 2007, President Bush signed into law the Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007, boosting fleetwide CAFE to 35mpg by 2020. This has been brought into
With regulation and with a growing appetite among consumers for fuelefficiency (driven by the ever-increasing pump price of gasoline, widely expected to reach US$ 4 per gallon by summer), a key question being asked by automotive OEMs and component suppliers alike is “Which technology will win in the US – hybrid gasoline-electric or diesel powertrains?” However, the relative fuel efficiency benefits of these two technologies are something of a controversial subject. Diesels and hybrid gasoline powertrains actually provide very similar fuel efficiency results. Published fuel economy statistics suggest that hybrids offer greater savings than diesels, but many automakers argue that the official test cycle in the US benefits hybrids with unrealistic driving techniques (such as very slow acceleration periods).
One of the aspects of hybrid technology that is potentially confusing to the buyer is the fact that different types of systems are available. At the simplest level are the stop / start systems as offered on a number of smaller European models as well as the Saturn Vue where the engine will switch off automatically whenever the car is brought to a standstill and will restart automatically as soon as it is required. The next level of complexity involves the microhybrid systems. These work in the same way as stop / start systems but offset the energy requirement for successive restarts via regenerative braking. The new ‘Efficient Dynamics’ BMW models are examples of this type of system. Mild hybrids such as the Honda Accord and Civic IMA (Integrated Motor Assist) use a small flywheel-mounted electric motor to supplement engine power
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Gasoline-hybrid powertrains already benefit from some regulatory and commercial advantages. They are fully compliant with strict tailpipe emissions regulations (such as particulate and NOx emissions); perhaps equally important is the fact that, hybrids also allow owners to visibly demonstrate their green credentials—thanks to the positive publicity of the technology. Hybrids also avoid the stigma of ‘dirty diesel’ in the minds of US consumers and can be filled at many existing gas station pumps. Hybrid variants
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and provide potential fuel savings by allowing a smaller gasoline engine to be fitted—the technique known as downsizing. Finally, the most sophisticated level of commercially available hybrid system is represented by full hybrids such as the Toyota Prius, Camry and Highlander, Lexus RX400h and GS450h, and the Ford Escape hybrid. In these vehicles, one or more electric motors provide significant power and in some instances, an electric-only ZEV mode. All of these types of hybrids have one over-arching common operating principle—all of the energy required to move the car forward will have ultimately been derived from its gasoline fuel tank. In essence, the hybrid system is enabling the gasoline engine to operate more efficiently. One further type of
world’ drive cycle typical of this type of operation. For a more varied pattern of usage, a mild-or full-hybrid powertrain may be more appropriate, whereas for predominantly high-speed freeway operation hybridisation may have little or no benefit. This sensitivity of fuel efficiency to duty cycle is at least in part the reason for some of the controversy surrounding unfulfilled public expectations of gas mileage. Meeting the ‘Clean Diesel’ challenge
While the poor image of diesels among American consumers—due largely to the unrefined and underpowered products of previous decades—is a clear obstacle, meeting the stringent tailpipe NOx emissions standards is perhaps a much greater challenge. These standards apply at both
While the poor image of diesels among American consumers is a clear obstacle, meeting the stringent tailpipe NOx emissions standards is perhaps a much greater challenge. hybrid, not yet on the market, breaks away from this total reliance on energy being derived from its combustion engine; the so-called ‘plug-in’ hybrid can charge its batteries from a domestic electric socket. Duty cycle is critical
The typical operation, or duty cycle, of the vehicles in question is the key determining factor in the selection of the most efficient technology. For example, a delivery vehicle engaged in stop-andgo traffic will benefit greatly from a simple stop / start system and may not reap the full benefits of a full hybrid powertrain. This was demonstrated by the Ricardo HyTrans project in which a micro-hybrid delivery vehicle generated savings in fuel consumption of up to 21 per cent based on a recorded ‘real
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a federal level in terms of the standards set by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) which are followed by 45 US states, and at an individual state level for those states which follow even stricter standards set by the California Air Resources Board (CARB). The Tier 2 standards being phased in over 2004-2009 at the federal level are weighted by vehicle size (so that they can, for instance, be averaged across each OEM’s fleet), but the California regulations require compliance by all vehicles on sale. These standards are significantly more challenging than those proposed by the EU for 2009 and in certain respects are even stricter than those currently suggested for Euro VI in 2014. However, as research and development work by Ricardo and others has shown, the US Tier 2 standards are
achievable for diesels using the latest generation of fuel injection systems, advanced air handling such as twostage inter-cooled turbo-charging, and NOx aftertreatment such as lean NOx trap (LNT) or selective catalytic reduction (SCR) technologies. While there is considerable debate as to which NOx aftertreatment system will take precedence in the US market, it appears clear that the challenges of each (including, for example, the implementation of a urea distribution network for the SCR technology currently favoured in Europe) can be overcome. Diesel’s key advantages
The modern diesel powertrain offers consumers some significant advantages over its gasoline counterpart. Diesels deliver similar fuel economy to gasoline hybrids and actually outperform hybrids in high-speed highway driving. Diesels also have superior torque characteristics, resulting in sportier performance and improved towing characteristics, particularly important for trucks and SUVs. If recent trends continue as expected, this performance gap with gasoline may well increase further. The rest of the world has already decided
The US is the key battleground for diesels and gasoline hybrids. It appears certain that Japan will focus on advanced gasoline technologies and hybrids, while in Europe it appears that the focus will be on advanced diesel engines and upgrades to gasoline technology. Given the broadly equivalent real-world fuel economy and CO2 emissions of diesels compared to gasoline hybrids, there is little commercial potential for the latter in Europe other than as image vehicles. Instead, many in Europe are looking beyond current product offerings to the prospect of hybridised diesel vehicles. In the US, however, opinions still vary widely on which technology will have the greatest penetration and at what pace.
ENGINE AND CHASSIS
The US battleground for diesels and hybrids
The current political and legislative climate in the US generally favours hybrids over diesel, particularly in California and the other CARB states, but a shift in the direction of diesel is possible, particularly if its economic advantages can be showcased. Already, some of the technology-specific incentives for hybrids are beginning to be phased out, but perhaps the greatest advantage of diesel over gasoline hybrids is cost. Based on Ricardo analysis, the cost of a bare V8 gasoline engine of approximately 4.0 litres of capacity, without transmission and having of US emissions compliance, is approximately US$ 2000. The incremental cost of a current European diesel without complex exhaust aftertreatment is circa US$ 1000-2000, whereas a US
compliant clean diesel would have an incremental cost of around US$ 30004000 depending on the aftertreatment technology used. Against this, the report estimates that the incremental cost of a hybrid powertrain of the type fitted to the Lexus RX400h is US$ 7000-8000, approximately double the cost penalty of a fully compliant clean diesel. For smaller vehicles, the report estimates that the cost penalty would be smaller for both the powertrains, but the advantage of diesel would remain. In the US, a consumer paying the full upfront cost of either a clean diesel or a gasoline hybrid is unlikely to recoup the extra cost in fuel savings quickly, due to the comparatively lower fuel tax. However, it is possible that perceived savings (every time the consumer fills up), consumer attitudes (preference for driving a more fuel-efficient vehicle) and automaker pricing
decisions will improve the prospects for fuel-efficient vehicles. Two potential winners
Ricardo believes both the powertrains will be successful and gain significant share in the US. Growth is predicted from the current level of 800,000 (545,000 diesel and 255,000 hybrid) to 2.7 million units in 2012 (15 per cent market share). Of this total, diesel sales (1.5 million) are expected to exceed hybrids (1.2 million) purely for cost reasons, with clean diesel’s cost penalty being about half that of a gasoline hybrid. The pace of uptake is likely to depend on several factors and will be strongly influenced by fuel prices and other macro-economic developments. In this particular battleground, therefore, it looks as if both low-carbon powertrain technologies will emerge as winners.
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Numerical Simulation of Exhaust System Noise David Herrin Assistant Research Professor Department of Mechanical Engineering University of Kentucky, USA
Modern computer methods are integrated into a simulation scheme to predict the sound attenuation in complicated exhaust systems.
Computer simulation of mufflers
Numerical acoustic simulation is being used effectively in industries as diverse as HVAC, heavy equipment and automotive. Certainly, the most popular numerical acoustics method is the boundary element method (BEM). The BEM is a numerical approximation used to solve the acoustic wave equation. This application is well documented in the literature. The BEM is similar to the finite element method but with an important difference that makes it especially advantageous for NVH problems. The boundary surface is discretized or meshed instead of the acoustic domain. This saves considerable modelling effort when compared to domain discretization methods such as the finite element and finite difference methods. However, it is infeasible to model complete systems using the BEM because of the CPU-intensive nature of the analyses. Nonetheless, individual components (i.e. expansion chambers, Helmholtz resonators, perforated elements etc.) can be modelled, and the BEM results for individual components can be integrated into a process to predict insertion loss for built-up exhaust systems. It should be noted that a
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Jun Han Visiting Scholar University of Kentucky, USA
similar process could be used for HVAC systems in automobiles as well. The technique described in this article is known as the transfer matrix approach. The chief assumption and limitation is that of plane acoustic waves at the inlet and termination of each component. The scheme for integrating BEM calculations into a procedure for predicting transmission or insertion loss of complicated exhaust systems is described here. Transfer matrix theory
Acoustic waves propagate in ducts for a wide range of applications. For small mufflers and silencers, the
duct cross-sectional dimensions are normally small compared to the acoustic wavelength simplifying the analysis. Plane wave models are appropriate up to some cut-off frequency. This frequency can be estimated easily for ducts and is equal to c/2d where c is the speed of sound (343m/s in air) and d is a characteristic dimension of the duct cross-section (i.e. diameter for a circular duct, or width or height of a square duct). Munjal’s classic text summarises transfer matrix theory, and includes the transfer matrix for many common muffler and silencer components.
A schematic illustrating the sound pressures and particle velocities needed to define the four-pole parameters
p1 v1
Exhaust Component p2
3-D Waves
v2
Plane Waves Figure 1
ENGINE AND CHASSIS
A schematic illustrating the transfer matrix approach
Muffler Engine
AL BL 1
CL DL 1
AL 2 BL2
1
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AM BM
CL 2 DL2
CM DM Figure 2
Transfer matrix theory is a staple analysis tool for assessing noise attenuation in exhaust and muffler systems. Once the transfer matrix for a particular component is determined, the effect of connecting it in series with other components can be determined with simple matrix algebra. Furthermore, if the transfer matrices for each component in a built-up system are known, transmission loss can be determined. As mentioned before,
this is predicated on the plane wave assumption being valid at the inlet and termination of each component. However, the sound waves need not be planar within the components. A transfer matrix is composed of four-pole parameters A, B, C and D. Figure 1 illustrates the fourpole parameters for an exhaust component. These four-pole parameters are defined according to the matrix equation
where p1 and p2 are sound pressures an.d v1 and v2 are acoustic particle velocities as defined in Figure 1. The four-pole parameters for certain components like rigid-walled straight pipes or ducts are well-known. However, numerical or experimental methods must be used to determine the fourpole parameters of more sophisticated components like expansion chambers and Helmholtz resonators at high frequencies. The four-pole parameters are easily determined using the BEM via two successive analyses. Predicting transmission loss
One metric for measuring sound attenuation in mufflers is transmission loss. Transmission loss refers to the sound attenuation independent of the engine source and the exhaust pipe termination condition. Another metric, insertion loss, is used to account for the attenuation muffler in conjunction with the engine source and exhaust pipe termination. Only transmission
Experimental setup and simulation strategy
Figure 3
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Comparison of measurement to simulation 100 Measurement
Transmission Loss
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0 0
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Frequency (Hz) Figure 4
loss will be considered in this article. However, the insertion loss may also be discerned if the source and termination conditions are known.
Conclusion
Transmission loss refers to the sound attenuation independent of the engine source and the exhaust pipe termination condition. Transmission loss can be determined by multiplying transfer matrices together to find the total four-pole parameters for the built-up system. The total fourpole parameters (AT, BT, CT, and DT) for the system shown in Figure 2 is determined as AT BT CT DT
AL 1 BL1
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where Si and So are the inlet and outlet duct cross-sectional areas respectively. is the fluid mass density (1.21kg/m3 for air) and c is the speed of sound (343m/s for air). If the ratio of the surface areas (Si/So) at the inlet to the outlet is unity, the second term in the above equation may be neglected.
2
Once the overall four-pole parameters have been determined using the above equation, transmission loss can be determined using the equation
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tested and simulated. It should be noted that the experiment though simple is representative of many muffler systems. BEM analyses were conducted to find the four-pole parameters for both expansion chambers (i.e. both drums). The BEM meshes are indicated in Figure 3. Note that the BEM approach can be selectively applied to larger muffler components since plane wave approximations will not be valid. However, the transfer matrix for the straight pipe connecting the two expansion chambers can be handled using equations like those in Munjal’s text since the pipe diameter is small compared to an acoustic wavelength. Thus, it can be assumed that acoustic waves propagate along the pipe but not in a direction transverse to the pipe. The transmission loss for the system (Figure 3) was measured and compared to simulation (Figure 4). Notice the excellent agreement between the two.
Validation example
The procedure is illustrated via an example. Figure 3 shows a schematic of the pipe system that was
In summary, numerical methods provide means by which the mechanisms controlling the acoustical characteristics of muffler components and systems can be understood and, ultimately, controlled in design. This article demonstrates that a practical level of accuracy can be readily obtained via numerical simulation in exhaust problems. An approach for using numerical techniques to determine transmission loss for multi-component exhaust systems has been summarised. It should be noted that state-of-theart software like LMS Virtual Lab and other commercial software has the ability to model perforated elements and sound absorbing materials in complex arrangements. Certainly, the science of muffler design is sufficiently mature to minimise prototype development.
ENGINE AND CHASSIS
Electric Drive Vehicles in Future Transportation Potential for fuel cell vehicles Changing climate, rising oil prices and geographical distribution of oil resources requires us to reduce our dependence on petroleum.
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s the price of oil continues an upward trend reaching over US$ 100 a barrel in March 2008, the economic consequences for the transportation sector are substantial, leading to increased costs for movement of goods and people. This upward trend in oil prices, together with the geographical distribution of oil resources inevitably raises the question about reducing our dependence on petroleum. Awareness of climate change is now widespread and efforts are underway to identify ways of reducing carbon emissions. Sadly, we have not invested sufficiently in technologies that can reduce greenhouse gases (GHG) and are not reliant on petroleum. For example, California has set a goal of reducing GHG emissions by 80 per cent from 1990 levels by 2050 (Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger Executive Order, 2005). This would require a reduction from 13.9 tons of CO2 equivalent per capita currently to 1.5 in 2050. With such a dramatic reduction being required, substantial changes in transportation related GHGs will be required. Apart from reducing vehicle miles travelled (VMT), maximising mass transit deployment, downsizing of vehicles, using lightweight materials and extracting the maximum efficiency from gasoline and diesel engines, a policy to introduce zero emission technologies
Alan C Lloyd President International Council on Clean Transportation USA
should be implemented starting with a low percentage, followed by its full deployment in 20 to 30 years. Electric drive technologies can satisfy this policy goal and must play an increasingly important role in reducing the future emissions. Ultimately, by using renewable energy one can achieve zero emission from electric drive technologies. The increasing global competition for oil and the political instability of much of the world’s oil reserves make it appar-
(including noise) and those that derive their fuel from renewable energy should be deployed in expanding major urban areas in order to address climate change. The recent announcement of mass deployment of battery electric vehicles in Israel as part of a public-private partnership involving Renault is an excellent example of real world deployment of electric drive technology. Progress in fuel cell vehicles in the last decade, as evidenced by recent National Academy of Sciences
While the poor image of diesels among American consumers is a clear obstacle, meeting the stringent tailpipe NOx emissions standards is perhaps a much greater challenge. ent that reduction in oil use is a major factor in driving a new generation of vehicle technologies that can address these issues in a revolutionary, and not just evolutionary, manner. Electric drive represents such an opportunity. Need for electric drive technologies
The market place is clearly seeing increased use of electric power on-board vehicles for electronics and for hybridisation. New technologies with low or zero emissions of conventional pollutants
and US Department of Energy reports, makes them one of the leading contenders for major deployment in the transportation sector in the next 20-30 years. However, any major transformation takes time and the foundation for deployment needs attention now. Environmental concerns
Rapid growth in vehicle population in China and India has led to concerns about urban air quality and the impact of CO2 emissions on change in the
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climate. Vehicle manufacturers should try to improve the efficiency of conventional vehicle technology while significantly reducing pollution. However, merely setting fuel efficiency standards in a rapidly expanding vehicle population might not lead to any significant reduction in CO2. Concerns about the pollution, which can accompany the increasing dieselisation in rapidly expanding markets, requires strong enforcement of emission standards to minimise increasing NOx and particulate emissions. However, the use of low sulphur diesel fuel, necessary both for effective vehicle engine aftertreatment and the application of new technologies such as homogeneous charge compression ignition (HCCI), has been slow in countries that are seeing significant vehicle growth. I would like to suggest that a focused parallel effort be undertaken to deploy electric drive vehicles. The rationale for such an initiative is provided below. Once vehicles enter into the market, they remain there for many years. With conventional combustion engines, it is likely that these vehicles will emit greater pollution over time as a result of factors such as inadequate maintenance, poisoning of catalysts, use of poor quality fuels etc. In short, deployment of these technologies today represents a significant sunk investment, which typically produces increased emissions as the vehicle ages. Electric drive vehicles, powered by batteries or fuel cells (or combinations thereof ) do not experience these problems—they exhibit zero tailpipe emissions throughout their operating lifetime. Depending on the fuel mix for electricity generation, these technologies can result in dramatic CO2
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reductions. Rather than continuing to grow diesel fleets exclusively, it seems prudent to invest in technologies that can considerably reduce GHG emissions. The use of electric drive is slowly growing. In Delhi, India, the successful replacement of diesel buses and threewheelers by natural gas shows what can be done with decisive government policy. In China, millions of electric two-wheelers are being produced. Advances in battery and fuel cell technologies have been significant in the last decade. Applications of lithium ion batteries in electric vehicles are growing daily. Fuel cell applications are seeing a dramatic growth in the area of portable electronics, backup power for telecommunications and as replacements for batteries in forklifts used for material handling. Fuel cell buses are operating successfully in many parts of the world and will be deployed around Olympic events in Beijing (2008), Vancouver Canada (2010) and London (2012). General Motors and Honda have already released fuel-cell based vehicles into the market. Although there are a few questions to be sorted out regarding costs, hydrogen storage and distribution, there is a huge potential in these technologies to drive critical investments necessary for reducing dependence on petroleum. It is high time the policy makers reconsidered investing solely in the technologies that affect the planet. They should also make an urgent effort to provide policy and financial incentives for true zero emission technologies. Two examples of cuttingedge technologies have been discussed above and there will be others. With the stakes being so large, competition in this area will certainly be high.
Alan C Lloyd is president of the International Council on Clean Transportation. He holds a doctorate degree in Gas Kinetics from the University College of Wales, Aberystwyth, U.K. Dr Llyod is an advocate of alternate fuels, electric drive and fuel cell vehicles. Dr Lloyd’s work focusses on the viable future of advanced technology and renewable fuels, with attention to urban air quality issues and global climate change.
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BOOK Shelf
Particulate Emissions from Vehicles Author: Peter Eastwood Year of Publication: 2008 Description Authored by an acknowledged expert in the field the book discusses the impact of new legislation on the automotive industry, and new ways of measuring particulate size, number and composition that are now being sought. The book is divided into sections on particulate fundamentals, formation, characterisation, measurement, abatement and health.
Green Designed: Future Cars Author: Ulrich Bethscheider-Kieser Year of Publication: 2008 Description From eco-niche to mega-trend: The new book series, “green designed,” presents the most attractive and exciting examples of ecodesign the creative world has to offer. The first volume introduces a unique selection of more than 40 unusual and forward-looking car designs that will change the world: Hybrid cars that are already in mass production, automobiles soon to be produced, powered with natural gas, bio fuel or electricity, and concepts of fuel-cell vehicles. For more books, visit Knowledge Bank section of www.autofocusasia.com
DESIGN AND TESTING
Driver-centred Design Automation in cars is evolving so fast that it threatens to outpace the human’s ability to keep up. As the driving task changes, it is more crucial than ever to consider the most important component in the automobile—the driver.
Mark S Young Research Lecturer Human-centred Design Institute School of Engineering and Design Brunel University UK
Human factors
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he first decade of the 21st century has seen an abundance of novel and automated technologies being offered in cars. Adaptive cruise controls, active steering systems and collision detection devices are just a few technologies that are becoming more widely available. Vehicle automation is not a new phenomenon—automatic transmission has been common since the 1950s; conventional cruise control was developed around the same time. However, there is a key difference between these traditional systems and today’s more complex technologies, and that lies in their interaction with the driver. Where an automatic gearbox assumes more low-level vehicle control
activities, the ‘new breed’ is impinging on more psychological, decision-making elements of the driving task. In our research, we have referred to this distinction as vehicle automation (referring to those ‘below-theline’ vehicle control tasks) and driving automation (for the ‘above-the-line’ driver decision tasks). This is not a trivial distinction—in psychological terms, vehicle automation covers the skill-based tasks, which drivers perform without conscious awareness. Driving automation, on the other hand, can affect rule-based and knowledge-based tasks—meaning the driver will notice them and will have to think about their impact on overall driving performance.
It may be obvious by now that I am not an automotive engineer. My expertise lies in ergonomics (or human factors); so I am concerned with how automation is designed to fit with the psychological capabilities and limitations of the user. This driver-centred design approach views the driver-vehicle system as a team, comprising human and machine elements, but with common goals to control the vehicle safely and efficiently. From this perspective, team members should be selected (i.e. the human should be trained and the technology should be designed) to exploit the strengths and compensate for the weaknesses of other members in the team. Thinking about how to design automation to contribute most effectively to team performance allows us to import models of human-human teams as design guidelines and there is plenty to choose from. For instance, some leading human factors researchers have looked at trust in automation based on human trust in other people. Trust is a delicate balance with automation. Too little, may be the technology is ignored negating the benefits; and too much, the driver may become too dependent on the system. It turns out that trust is largely governed by our perceptions of the system’s competence – if we feel it is more able to carry out the task than ourselves, then we will trust it, and vice versa. Some of our biggest lessons regarding human factors of automation, though, have come from aviation—an industry that has been using similar ‘driving automation’ systems for some 20 years now. Various issues have come to the
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fore, the prominent concerns being mental workload and situation awareness. Mental workload presents a paradox— automation can at once decrease workload in some situations (if it takes over driving activities), also, on the contrary, increase workload in certain other areas (such as trying to keep track of what the automation is doing). For a number of reasons about the way human attention is structured, both overload and underload are equally detrimental to performance. Situation awareness—literally ‘knowing what is going on’—is the key for performance, and depends on accurate information being available for the driver to perceive, comprehend and predict what will happen in the near future. The aviation industry has split over how to deal with these problems, with the two main aircraft manufacturers adopting opposing philosophies on the authority of automation. One, the ‘hard automation’ approach, which gives the technology ultimate control – if the pilot attempts a control action which the computer determines to be unsafe, it won’t let it happen. The other, ‘soft automation’, maintains that the human should have the final say in whether an action can go ahead. A soft automation system may advise the human if those actions take the aircraft outside its flight envelope, but if the pilot persists, it will let the action go ahead anyway. Naturally, there are pros and cons for each approach. Technical reliability may be considered better than human reliability, thus favouring hard automation. Alternatively, there have been instances where pilots have been forced to stress the airframe in order to restore control from a dangerous situa-
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tion, in which case a hard automation system would not have allowed the pilots to save the day. The problem lies in the context of the actions and, more often than not, in automation systems that cannot be aware of the extenuating circumstances. In our analysis of vehicle automation systems, we have suggested that hard automation may be most appropriate for those ‘below-the-line’ vehicle actions, which are largely independent of context. For instance, an ABS or ESP activation is triggered by loss of traction, regardless of how or why that has occurred. Moreover, since these activities are unconscious and skill-based, they have little psychological impact on the driver’s mental workload or situation awareness. Soft automation, in contrast, is probably better suited to driving automation—systems, which are dependent on context, such as lane departure warnings, or intelligent speed adaptation. Consider a situation where a driver has misjudged an overtaking situation, and needs to temporarily break the speed limit in order to avoid a dangerous conflict with an oncoming car. An intelligent speed advisor might not allow them to do so, thus increasing the risk in such circumstances. Similarly, a lane departure warning which intervenes for a legitimate overtake is likely to become distrusted and switched off (note that not all lane transitions necessarily require the use of turn signals, which typically override a lane departure warning). Coming back to the team analogy, then, it is evident that for a driving automation system to be integrated successfully with the driver-vehicle
system, it needs to support the driver, rather than try to replace the driver. Such support depends on three factors—communication, cooperation and coordination. Communication
Communication is a two-way process, and depends on the driver being able to give effective instructions to the system as well as the system providing informative and timely feedback on its actions. Feedback really is a crucial issue here, affecting all those problems of mental workload, situation awareness, and trust described earlier, and the importance of feedback in an automated system cannot be overstated. Keep in mind, though, that the feedback doesn’t necessarily have to be a visual display – auditory and even tactile interfaces are proving their worth, especially in driving where the visual demands of the primary task are already high. Using multimodal interfaces offers a redundancy of feedback, which can be even more beneficial. Cooperation
Cooperation is a classic team activity, and human-automation teams are no exception. The essential point is that both members of the team work towards the same objective, and that common rules have been established to identify as to how to deal in a given situation. This can be broadly thought of across the vehicle driving automation divide, with vehicle automation being cooperation in action (‘if I skid, engage ABS’), where driving automation is cooperation in planning (‘I only want collision warnings if my timeto-contact exceeds a set threshold’).
DESIGN AND TESTING
Coordination involves ensuring that the tasks are properly distributed amongst members of the team, and that each has a good idea of what the other is taking care of. In human teams, this would be management or delegation of a task, but with automation the hierarchy is somewhat flatter. It is important that both human and machine know the extent and limitations of the tasks they are performing. Again, context is the key here, particularly for the automation knowing what the driver’s intentions are. Taking these principles as a whole, we would argue that if automation is to be successful, the system should be designed to behave just like a human co-driver. Recall the days when you were learning to drive and the instructor had dual controls on the passenger side. S/he would continually talk to you about your performance, point out hazards on the road
you should be aware of, and you knew that in an emergency s/he would take over without hesitation. That is what the ideal automation should do. Once again, we can look to aviation for our inspiration. The concept of Crew Resource Management (CRM) was developed to improve communication, cooperation and coordination amongst the human flight crew. Its implementation has proved a huge success. The lessons learnt could equally well be applied as design guidelines for automated systems. More research is needed in
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human factors to determine just how these would work, but we believe it is a promising avenue for putting the human driver at the heart of the design process. Some industry experts believe that in as little as 30 years, we will see fully automated cars on our roads. If and when that does happen, we will no longer need to worry about driver-centred design, as there will be no drivers. Until that day, we need to make sure that the intelligence in our cars is matched to the so-called ‘nut behind the wheel’.
Mark Young is a research lecturer in the School of Engineering and Design and programme director for the new MSc in Human-Centred Design at the Brunel University. He holds a BSc in Psychology and a PhD in Cognitive Ergonomics, both from the University of Southampton. He is a registered member of The Ergonomics Society and sits on the vehicle design working group for the Parliamentary Advisory Council for Transport Safety (PACTS).
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Automotive Design Process The consuming culture
Using semiotic and cultural analysis techniques to anticipate future trends and align automotive design can help serve deep consumer needs.
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cross the world and in every product sector, companies have been increasingly focussed on being market oriented or consumercentric. Everybody is chasing the trend, trying to ferret out the next big thing and scrambling for every potential point of differentiation. And, who could argue against designing products that are inspired from people’s needs and are responsive to their capabilities? Even better, if the product is perceived as being cool, iconic and desirable in a completely emotional way that transcends more rational factors. But, there are nagging questions lurking under the surface. Sometimes, what consumers say they want isn’t what they actually purchase. Or, companies end up with piles of market research data cramming offices, but with no clear idea of what to do with it. That’s where culture comes into the equation. Consumption by its very definition is transient, destructive and includes the act of buying, eating, spending and using up. But the cultural meaning of that consumption remains ready for us to study, analyse and make use of it as we innovate. The semiotic toolkit
Semiotics is the art and science of studying signs and symbols and is generally used by linguists, philosophers, anthropologists, media theorists, psychoanalysts and designers.
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Traditional research methods start with the assumption that by digging deep into individual lives, it is possible to extract the behaviours, attitudes, needs and desires that our product needs to address to create value. Semioticians flip the problem around by understanding that consumer ideas, beliefs, attitudes and perceptions come from the surrounding culture. By studying the artefacts of that culture (like media, advertising, objects, conversation, art, graffiti and blogs), rather than the consumers of that culture, semioticians offer a different perspective on how products acquire value and worth in the marketplace. When we use semiotics and related theories in our design process at PDD, we generally talk about two things: discourses and codes. A discourse is a type of cultural conversation—a mode in which people think and talk about the issue at hand. Discourses help us understand what types of cultural currency are at play and how people are constructing their identities via products and consumption. Mapping discourses show us what our products should be saying in the marketplace to be meaningful and differentiated from the competition. Then, we move onto the question of how to say it through the product’s design. In semiotic terms, a sign is anything a gesture, a wink, an object, a mathematical equation - that stands for something other than itself. String of signs creates
Julie Jenson Bennett Head, Research and Human Sciences PDD Group Ltd. UK
what we call a code. Codes are the things we understand as messages. For example, while looking at a chair, people don’t just see a place to sit down, they also make assumptions about who owns it, how it’s used, and value or worth that the chair represents. Some of those associations are historic while others are contemporary. In product design, the types of codes we are most interested in are those expressed by combinations of form, material, colour, and gesture. Designers use codes to make their products more understandable and desirable to the market. So, even before we put pen on paper and generate concepts, we identify and analyse the codes to focus on our efforts. That previously invisible assumption about what makes something “contemporary feminine” chocolate or “approachable yet safe” petrol pumps is now explicit. Semioticians can tell you the proportion of stainless steel to black to change the perception of an object from “scientific” to “professional” or how to connote “clean and dirty” for infection control in hospitals through the selection of colour and material. Culture and car
No one would argue the effect the car has had on our culture. However, to take a semiotic view we need to turn things on their head—by looking at the effects of culture on the car. The car is a reflection of the culture that surrounds it, the culture that gave birth to it.
DESIGN AND TESTING
Looking forward through culture Semiotics is a tool that inverts our research assumptions focussing on culture and consumption rather than consumers. This presents an interesting challenge to the automotive industry. For any other industry we work with, you’re not chasing the consumer of today, but the consumer of five, ten, and fifteen years in the future. This is where trends come into the picture. So what is a trend, anyway? Some might say it’s a recognisable pattern... the “data is trending” in a certain way…. Often, it’s described as a mass behaviour or situation…the “trendy” waves that we either get caught up in or completely miss from our particular cultural viewpoint. Most often, in our business, a trend is something more than a possibility but less than a certainty—a scenario of the future that our clients need to consider, plan for, and intercept to their business advantage. Mass behaviors in consumption, location and interaction with the world are observable and forecastable at many different scales. These are some of the constants in the change that underpin and direct geo-political shift. They come in different sizes: macro, midi and micro trends. The ageing population of the developed economies is a macro trend. Midi trends include phenomenon like nationally-driven trends in food consumption which mutate from place to place, like a global game of consumption telephone. And right now, there is a great interest in micro trends—these being rich areas of difference that throw up new models or market opportunities: niche social groups like vegan children or the left-handed. When we start considering not how the world around us will change but how our consumer’s most basic desires will change, we are in the territory of cultural change. As we have seen legislative, political, technological and demographic changes are necessarily inter-related, but cultural change lags behind them all because it alone is dependent on a messy mix of mass human experience.
First, it helps connect the more transient aspects of consumer culture with the deeper values that culture represents. The latest fashion fads for teenagers may change faster than what an average parent can fund comfortably, but the values and identities teenagers are trying to project through their fashion remain constant for decades, if not centuries. Secondly, semiotics is very good at identifying the cyclical aspects of culture. Codes are always changing— lapsing and emerging, but they usually come back around again. Think of consumer electronics—white to black to silver to colour and back again to black. The trick comprehends the pace A uthor
For example, why have American and European cars followed such distinctive design trajectories? During 1950s, cars in America looked positively flamboyant, baroque or gothic to modern eye—the elevation of style over any other consideration. Put in the context of post-war production they are emblematic of a nation expressing indomitable triumph. Europe had lost much of its distribution infrastructure and access to its sources of raw materials during World War II. The US by contrast was intact and could afford extravagance without conscience. Not to mention differences of cultural morale, as some nations were victors while others bore the responsibility for the war. European cars emphasised roundness, connoting engineering and design prowess, but also a sense of cocooning – the shell holding more compact engineering, an active reduction of cultural footprint. This is in complete contrast to US cars at that time. Some critics might argue that overreliance on semiotic thinking strangles breakthrough innovation and is always destined to create what the consumer expects rather than what it cannot even imagine. However, we’ve found that semiotic frameworks prove to be an integral piece to our trends work, spotting potential areas for ownable creativity in between the mapped landscapes. Meta-trends may tell you that the world is becoming more global, demographic trends may tell that the western consumer is getting older and the micro-trends may tell about the under-served niche markets. But these trends don’t help you to figure out what forms and finishes are going to signify luxury to your increasingly global audience, what identity the senior citizen of the next decade wants to project with their car, or the auditory characteristic of a car door that resonates with “impressionable elites” versus “unisexuals”. Semiotics help to achieve this extra level of translation in two ways.
of change and the subtle variation that makes codes fresh and relevant the second, third or fourth time around, and where to take them next. Conclusion
The physical world, its tangible objects and material qualities signify and symbolise a wealth of value and meaning that we consume expertly and intuitively. But that meaning doesn’t need to stay invisible like ghosts walking amongst us. Using a few simple tools at the appropriate time in the process, these meanings can be analysed, decoded and translated directly into our innovation and design processes.
Julie Jenson Bennett heads the Research and Human Sciences department at PDD. Prior to this, she spent 12 years at Intel Corporation in the US, tackling a range of product design and user research initiatives, with expertise relating to information technology, manufacturing, e-commerce, digital-TV and interactive toys.
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Improving Automotive Design Process A new perspective
Our current vehicle design practice is increasingly refined to speed up the project execution and, as a result, many vehicles on our roads today lack in identity and character.
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he opportunity to be a speaker at the International Automotive Conference (IAC) in Sunderland, in November last year, gave me the possibility to reflect upon our current automotive design practice and how it is increasingly constrained by tight project timelines and in some cases by lack of vision. This is what should be questioned today, as many new vehicles on the road lack identity, originality and character. Therefore, I decided to tackle the presentation theme: ‘Evolution – How do we speed up the design process?’ from a different perspective, by introducing a recent case study based on an industrial collaboration project that our third year Transportation Design students had undertaken in collaboration with Concept Group International (CGI), a leading product design and strategic development consultancy based in Coventry, UK. Apart form establishing stronger links with industry, the aim of this project was to challenge current design methods and trends in order to create new design directions without having to compromise the design process with the usual
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financial, marketing and industrial constraints. As a design academic, one of my primary objectives is to instill in our design students the right approach to projects, making sure that a different and appropriate thinking process is applied right from the outset. This is an absolutely crucial requirement if new, different and original design solutions are to be developed. The project
This team project benefited from the direct involvement of Niki Yau (Principal Designer) and Jonathan Tatum, Head of Design from the CGI design studio, who set the briefs and repeatedly visited our students during the five-week project schedule. In our case, another primary objective of this collaboration was to prepare the class for the forthcoming industrial placement scheme, by enhancing the students’ intellectual and design skills to the required standard of professional presentation to secure a placement. The project required an enthusiastic and experiential approach to learning by linking technology with social,
Matteo Conti Senior Lecturer and Industrial Placement Tutor Northumbria University UK
marketing and aesthetic concerns. The choice of the subject matter enabled the students to develop a particular area of vehicle design interest or gain experience in the fascinating discipline of marine design. A series of final design drawings and renderings / CAD images were produced as presentation boards to illustrate both the exterior and the interior of their proposed designs. The overall integrity, appropriateness and detail of the design solution had to be apparent in terms of quality and clarity of the final presentation package.
DESIGN AND TESTING
The automotive brief
The first brief was entitled ‘HAUTE CAR-TURE’ in order to explore the link between fashion and automotive worlds. The aim was to select an automotive and a fashion brand to imagine the result of such collaboration and create a unique custom-built vehicle that reflected the values / design cues of both brands. This brief followed the trend of some car manufacturers associating their products with established fashion labels to further reinforce their appeal to new fashion-conscious buyers. A typical example of this is represented by the recent joint venture between Lamborghini and Versace as well as Mercedes Benz and Armani. In order to conceive a vehicle, which is, in this specific scenario, the outcome of both design brands, their core values and design language, our students had to carefully examine what areas of commonality and distinction had to be retained and combined. Only at the end of this brainstorming and brand / consumer analysis were they allowed to pick up their pencils.
Having gained this level of brand awareness, the students were able to embark on a design development process that was more evaluative, refreshing and satisfying. Students Nicki Lau and Samuel Sari approached the brief in a fairly unconventional way by combining Vivienne Tam and the Chinese maker Chery to form a new premium subbrand called Lineage, to diversify Chery’s portfolio in a lucrative and new niche market. Considering the increasing competition between car brands, this strategic product development plan gave the students plenty of motivation and ideas to invent a concept car within a different and dynamic branding scenario.
At the opposite end of the scale, James Murray and James Patterson chose to explore the enormous potential of two of the most charismatic brands in today’s society: Aston Martin and Chanel. For this project they aimed to create a car for women that offered aggression and power whilst carrying influences that Coco Chanel translated into her early 20th century designs, in terms of fluidity and organic forms. A lot of clever design work was then carried in order to convey the appropriate product semantic to the car in terms of detailing in a subtle and sensitive manner.
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DESIGN AND TESTING
The marine brief
This second brief required the students to design a concept boat (class between 58/64 foot), focussing on ‘premium lifestyle’ and automotive-inspired themes. The aim was to focus on exterior design and styling using automotive-influenced themes and levels of sophistication in design execution more associated with cars. This exciting brief was put forward by CGI designer for many valid reasons. Probably, the main one is well embodied by the blunt but honest statement that Dr Marteen de Bruijn, founder of Silvestris Haute Motive Concepts, made for Intersection Magazine (summer 2007): “Boat design needs to change radically, we are at least twenty to thirty years behind car manufacturing… it’s incredibly conservative.” Martin Atkinson and Jason Bushby decided to tackle this brief by creating a floating entertainment platform for a luxury hotel chain rather than producing another reiteration of the common luxury yacht. Whilst aboard the yacht, passengers would have numerous chances to independently explore and sample differing cultures of the Mediterranean, all without the stress or obligation of being limited by visiting times and group activities that you would find within a regular holiday package. All trips would be tailor-made to each individual client, whether it is for wedding functions, birthday parties or special celebrations.
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The yacht also features an observatory, which acts as a sheltered communal space on the main deck, while under water the space would allow anyone to view the sea without having to dive. Gianluca D’Alessandro and Jonathan Hodder designed a conceptual and advanced luxury submersible yacht to offer passengers the exhilarating opportunity to travel both on and below the water line. A spacious and
luxurious interior was formed around new hull architecture, capable of combining the dynamic requirements of both traditional yacht and compact submarine. This exciting and unusual proposal is another confirmation of the lengthy process, which had to occur at the beginning of the project to prepare and change the students’ mindset before entering the design development phase.
The intrinsic benefits of project design reviews
up the design process goes well beyond the appropriate use of design methods and cutting-edge software technology. It is instead, the ability to provide designers with the right level of confidence, intellectual rigour, knowledge and drive to innovate. For once, this specific approach is something
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This appealing design collaborative project proved to be a challenge, as students were required to design for the industry and also experiment with new scenarios, presentation techniques and communication strategies. Two important official interim critiques took place in our state-of-the-art School of Design building at Northumbria University, to provide guidance at key stages of the project. They represented fundamental stepping stones during which formative assessment with verbal feedback was given to each student by the CGI designers and their tutor. Our philosophy was to create a unique environment that supported the growth of a creative design community by promoting experimentation, communication and design education. The fundamental learning and practical methods adopted in the design process were based on in-depth mental approach to the project in order to speed up the evolution of ideas with appropriate methodologies, which unlocked and channelled students’ inspiration. We firmly believe that only a flexible and open mind will enable students to become not just well trained designers but also great thinkers! Within this context, it becomes apparent that the best strategy to speed
car design studios should turn to if they are to fully exploit their immense and varied design capabilities, but within a redefined timescale to seek out more diverse pathways. This is a means of finding profound sense and justification in whatever design activity we are involved.
Matteo Conti is a senior lecturer / industrial placement tutor in Northumbria University. His graduation is in Transportation Design with a First Class Honors. Recently appointed as the external examiner at Domus Academy for the MA course in Car Design and Mobility, Matteo’s plan is to place this evolving course in Newcastle on the European design arena.
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The rapidly evolving in-vehicle infotainment (IVI) systems present both ��������������� opportunities and challenges ������������������������������������� for OEMs and their suppliers. While OEMs are trying to facilitate the use of latest and futuristic digital devices in their cars, the very dynamic nature of consumer electronics and IT makes their journey tough.
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Infotainment Systems Role of open platform architecture
An open platform provides quick and cost-effective integration of the latest in-vehicle infotainment capabilities, allowing scalability for upgrades and dynamic flexibility as new consumer electronic products come to market.
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or an automaker, the car is a way to transport people safely and comfortably from point A to point B. For the consumer, that’s only part of the story. The car may also be a place to do business, find friends, access real-time road and destination information, watch movies, download videos, send voice-controlled instant messages or listen to e-mail. In short, a consumer would love to extend his or her digital lifestyle into their vehicle. Is this possible? Can the
you could carry over 100 hours of video and over 20,000 songs in your pocket. This kind of media mobility has created an end-user expectation of a digital lifestyle that extends just about anywhere. Wi-Fi and the emerging deployment of WiMAX, combined with existing 2.5G and 3G deployments, create pervasive connectivity for computing and media consumption on-the-go. State-of-the-art small form factor devices such as MIDs (Mobile Internet Devices) are always
State-of-the-art navigation systems integrate real-time traffic data, your personal points of interests and buddy locations into a new experience. industry create a fundamental shift in its business strategy that will keep pace with this rapidly changing consumer vision of the automobile? Absolutely. Consumers are expecting it and now the technology is here. The challenge before us is putting all the pieces together. Consumer expectations began shifting when computing and media went mobile. The iPod provided the ultimate in mobile media; suddenly
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connected to the Internet, providing round-the-clock connection to media. We can only expect that consumers will wish to have those capabilities in their cars, integrated in a safer and user-friendly environment. In-vehicle infotainment (IVI) systems are evolving rapidly. For example, a fully connected MID that includes your business and personal schedules, meshed with your IVI system, is a recipe for increased productivity.
Ton Steenman Vice President Digital Enterprise Group and General Manager Low-Power Embedded Products Division Intel Corporation USA
Using text-to-speech synthesis software, you could verbally command your system to connect to your company’s communication server so that you can listen and respond to voicemail and e-mail messages. Vehicles will even communicate with other vehicles, sharing information on highway alerts and emergency systems, to provide a safer journey. State-of-the-art navigation systems integrate real-time traffic data, your personal points of interests and buddy locations into a new experience, even extending the car into the Web 2.0 era of social networking. While some of these systems may be released in a few years from now, car OEMs and service providers can easily rattle off fifty innovative new applications, services and capabilities they would like to enable on IVI systems to bring greater efficiency and productivity to both drivers and passengers. Mobile or embedded?
Media, navigation, point-of-interest services and real-time communications are converging on the head unit—opinions on how this head unit will evolve, however, are varied. One camp asserts that personal devices should dock into the car, becoming the interface for the vehicle as well as
the source of media and connectivity capabilities. The other camp believes that MIDs are content carriers that must seamlessly connect within the car. To ensure ease-of-use and brand equity of the car manufacturer and to deal with the endless stream of legislation regarding what you can and cannot do in a car, attach to the windshield, or bring into the car—this group also believes the main source of infotainment and the human interface must be built-in. Only time can tell how these differing views are going to play out. The most likely outcome is the co-existence of these two use models with some variance based on car model and targeted consumer demographic. Given this dynamic, it is important that we establish an open, flexible platform with architectural consistency between mobile devices and the head unit, so that applications are easily
portable between those two platforms. An open platform architecture will enable the industry to sort through the complexity of what will be mobile and what will be integrated, how these two platforms will interact with each other, and how automobile manufacturers will keep pace with these changes in the consumer electronics world. Platform considerations
Primary considerations for building any new platform are connectivity, multimedia, time-to-market and total cost-of-ownership. Connectivity
A critical factor with connectivity is bringing Internet capability into the car as transparently as possible, to provide the consumer with uncompromised access to web-based applications, data and media. Because the Internet is evolving so rapidly, the underlying platform architecture must
keep up with ever-evolving Internet standards, protocols, website implementations and data representation. Like it or not, Internet technologies and standards are first made available on the web browsers and the standard PC platform. As other platforms follow, the time lag can be as severe as two years or more. If an IVI platform is to keep pace with trends in the consumer marketplace and take advantage of the latest Internet capabilities, it must use an implementation that offers those capabilities early and broadly. Multimedia
The younger generation is hooked to streaming video—watching YouTube while instantly messaging their friends about what they’re watching. This requires high-bandwidth pipes. In addition, mid-to high end infotainment solutions often provide multiple displays and 3D navigation, streaming to different passengers in
Benefits of standards-Based Open Platforms Lower Total Cost-of-Ownership Services & Solution Research and Development (R&D)
Test and Validation
Platform R&D
Services & Solution Research and Development (R&D)
Test and Validation Platform R&D
Hardware Development Hardware Development
Proprietary Platform
Includes Silicon, Operating System, Open Automotive Extensions and Middleware / APis
Open Platform
Use of an open platform helps reduce the cast of hardware development, platform R&D and test / validation efforts, while encouraging “re-use” at the basic OS. driver and middleware levels. Companies can reallocate these esources towards development and implementation of new services, solutions and applications
Figure 1
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45nm technology meets IVI requirements Certainly, you cannot take a 120 watt quad-core gaming processor platform and put it into a car! Two years ago, recognising the opportunity in mobile computing and small form factor embedded applications, Intel decided to develop a very low-power implementation of Intel® architecture. Coupled with the breakthrough capabilities of Intel’s 45nm transistor technology, the family of Intel® AtomTM processors was created. Further investments in platform building blocks, such as operating systems, drivers, and middleware, allowed us to bring breakthrough capabilities to market for IVI solutions. In the coming years, we will continue to optimise the architecture and overall platform implementation, developing new process technologies at smaller geometries to drive up performance and drive down power consumption. Leading companies in the automotive industry have already taken advantage of the emerging trends of IVI systems and built leading edge open platform implementations. For example, Harman-Becker showcased a next generation IVI system at CeBIT on March 4, 2008
Time-to-market
A brand new car coming off the lot will most likely have a sound, connectivity and navigation system that is easily three to four years behind what can be purchased off-the-shelf, today, as a mobile consumer solution. Consequently, next-generation IVI solutions must be more open with the goal of shortening time-to-market and supporting integration of newly released consumer applications. Furthermore, a platform that is less dependent on hardware-specific implementations and takes advantage of the flexibility of software can be up-
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graded more easily as new applications are released. This demands a shift from hardware to software engineering, and a repartitioning of the platform architecture. We need to build scalable solutions with enough headroom to add new applications before a car leaves the plant, or to upgrade a vehicle purchased a year or two ago. Total cost-of-ownership
The engineering challenges of any IVI system are intriguing, and many of us love to tinker with those systems. But we must also deal with budgets and look carefully at how we allocate resources. Vertically integrated systems are inherently poor at leveraging common engineering investments across the industry. In the field of IVI, many vendors are spending enormous resources to develop exactly the same basic, undifferentiated features. Use of an open platform
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parallel. Imagine a learning application that tells your kids in the backseat about the history of places you drive by. This requires real-time integration of location data, video and graphics. Make it interactive and you can imagine the scalability demands put on an IVI system. To handle these demands, our next-generation infotainment platforms must balance power consumption, connectivity, graphics capabilities and performance with the thermal and hardening requirements of vehicles. To do it right, we need an approach that is quite different from how IVI systems were architected and implemented in the past.
would not only support more “re-use” at the basic OS, driver and middleware levels, but also significantly reduce the cost of validation. Many companies spend 30-40 per cent of total production cost on test, integration and validation—a significant part of the overall development cost of a platform. Shifting to an open platform allows companies to reallocate engineering resources towards greater value-added and highly differentiated engineering tasks such as implementing new services, solutions and applications. Summary
Media, consumer devices, connectivity and the automotive industry are quickly converging. Use of a flexible and open standards based platform will speed development and deployment, and reduce the cost of engineering and validation so that more resources can be directed to the creation of new applications and services. Intel, along with its well-developed ecosystem of hardware and software suppliers, will continue to deliver platforms, applications and capabilities that enhance safety as well as enjoyment and productivity. A rich and open platform will empower the industry to keep pace with new consumer electronic devices and Internet technology, allowing customers to take their digital lifestyles with them, wherever they go. Intel and Intel Atom are trademarks of Intel Corporation in the U.S. and other countries. Other names and brands may be claimed as the property of others.
Ton Steenman is the president, Digital Enterprise Group and General Manager of the Low-Power Embedded Products Division (LEPD), at Intel. Prior to his current assignment, he was the general manager of the Modular Communications Platform Division (MCPD) at Intel Corporation. During his 25 years at Intel, he has held a variety of General Management, Product Management, Marketing and Sales positions.
Infotainment Applications Need for dynamic data integrity F-RAM memory protects data / system integrity against glitches such as sudden power loss, and records and stores dynamic data continuously, as required by today’s advanced car infotainment systems such as navigation and radio systems.
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he quantity of dynamic data in today’s infotainment applications is increasing. This data is often essential to the correct operation of a system and / or is user-centric, changing as the user’s environment changes (e.g. local traffic information). Advanced infotainment systems therefore require a non-volatile storage memory that guarantees high data availability and maintains data integrity. Sudden power loss
A common problem that many automotive infotainment systems designers face is the sudden loss of power. This typically occurs any time the engine is restarted after a stall. Power loss can cause data corruption and therefore can disrupt proper system operation, unless provisions are designed-in to maintain data integrity. The following standard circuit techniques make the most of F-RAM (Ferroelectric Random Access Memory) non-volatile memory to prevent the pitfalls of sudden power loss in automotive applications. The first is to replace an EEPPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory) and capacitor combination with FRAM memory. F-RAM uses much less power than EEPROM and writes much more quickly, eliminating the need for a capacitor to maintain power supply while writing is completed in a power-
loss scenario. In addition, the F-RAMbased solution requires less physical board space than the EEPROM + capacitor combination, while the cost of eliminating the capacitor can prove a significant difference in applications that demand a large amount of capacitance. The two circuits shown in Figure 1 are essentially equivalent: F-RAM is commonly used when the system demands that data be stored upon power loss. The graph below shows a typical RC decay curve. The microcontroller (MCU) sees the power starting to fail at 3.1V and has until Vdd reaches 2.8V before the brown-out detector fires the reset of the MCU and prevents further writing. In the example in Figure 2, the MCU only has 10 milliseconds between these two points – just enough time to write 1 byte or one page of data to an EEPROM. In
Duncan Bennett Strategic Marketing Manager Ramtron International USA
the same time, it is possible to complete 50,000 writes to a serial peripheral interface (SPI) F-RAM device. Power Loss–Comparing F-RAM and EEPROM writing speeds (Figure 2) F-RAM has already been adopted in advanced navigation systems to maintain system integrity in case of a sudden power failure. In systems that rely on a DVD for mapping information, F-RAM is used to record the position of the DVD reading head, so if power is unexpectedly lost (i.e. the vehicle engine stalls) the DVD player can quickly resume from its last position. The solution is to continuously write the position of the head to the F-RAM, making use of F-RAM’s virtually unlimited endurance. The same technique is commonly used in automotive DVD players to prevent data loss if the power fails. Movies recommence exactly where they
F-RAM and EEPROM circuits Vdd
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EEPROM
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F-RAM
Vss Figure 1
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Power loss – Comparing F-RAM and EEPROM writing speeds 3.5 3
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stopped since the F-RAM knows the DVD reading head position. This is an essential feature to avoid the wrath of a child complaining that poor driving has caused the movie to restart. F-RAM also solves the problem of navigation systems losing contact with enough satellites to make a firm position fix. This typically occurs when the vehicle enters a tunnel or an underground garage. If the position of the vehicle is being constantly stored in the F-RAM, the navigation system can use the F-RAM-stored position until a new
data in addition to the regular audio channels. This data ranges from traffic or weather information to road conditions, and should be available as soon as the driver starts the car. This means that the radio must download the data while the car engine is turned off. Since the system cannot know when the driver will return to the vehicle, it must download and store the data continuously. While automobile manufacturers are demanding more sophisticated car radio systems, they are increasingly limiting the amount of power that can
An exciting prospect for future navigation systems is their ability to access localised points-of-interest via a server connection. satellite position fix is acquired. This also means that the position is available if power is suddenly lost. This type of continuous writing is a common technique when using high-endurance F-RAM. High endurance / low power
Many of today’s new automotive radio formats handle large quantities of
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be drawn from the vehicle’s electrical supply, particularly when the engine is off. This presents car infotainment designers with a very difficult challenge. F-RAM solves this because it can be written to as often as required, with no practical limitation on the memory’s endurance. This means that data is written to the F-RAM whenever data is available. And after writing, the radio
enters a low power state to await the next wake up. In addition, the power required to write to F-RAM is considerably lower than writing to EEPROM (approximately 1/60th for 64 kilobits), further reducing the overall power budget. EEPROM in this application would not suffice as it does not have enough endurance and consumes too much power when writing. Dynamic data storage
USB connectivity is being designed into new vehicles as a standard user interface. A USB connector allows the vehicle to access music collections stored on portable music players / flash drives via the vehicle’s audio system. The USB interface must recognise a variety of available music storage devices and a variety of music (or video) file formats. It must be able to store playlists for different devices (e.g. MP3 players or USB flash drives). It must recall the last play points for each playlist on each device. This data is stored in the F-RAM so that the music resumes exactly where it stopped before the vehicle was turned off. F-RAM’s non-volatility and high endurance enable these features.
Storage of dynamic data is also integral to many new car radio features. This data may be: • Favorite artist / song: The radio remembers favorite songs/artists and changes stations if the artist / song is playing on another station. • Favorite station: The radio records favorite radio stations as the car travels from area to area and tunes into those stations if the car travels on the same route again. • Last station recall: The radio remembers the previous station and can switch back to it when prompted.
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Extensive data storage is also crucial in next-generation navigation systems. An exciting prospect for future navigation systems is their ability to access localised points-of-interest via a server connection. This dynamic data includes information on the car’s immediate surroundings such as local restaurants, attractions, and activities. This constantly changing data is written to the F-RAM as quickly as the data becomes available, ensuring that the most recentlyacquired data is immediately available after a power interruption. Another future development in navigation systems is the distribution of localised data. With the growth of electronic stability control, a vehicle can detect an icy patch in the road, send this information to the navigation system, which, in turn notifies the server. Other navigation systems interrogating the server are then warned of the road conditions.
All of this dynamic data must be retained between journeys, requiring a storage memory that is non-volatile, enables frequent writes, and often operates at low-power. Dynamic data is a fundamental component of many automotive infotainment systems and protecting this data is essential. The unique advantages of F-RAM—fast writes, virtually unlimited endurance, and low power consumption—allow designers to guarantee that this dynamic data has higher availability and greater integrity.
Duncan Bennett is a strategic marketing manager at Ramtron International of Colorado Springs, CO. He has over 20 years experience in the semiconductor industry. He started as a Design Engineer in the industrial control/graphical instrumentation systems field, then shifted from applications to sales and, finally, into marketing. At Ramtron, Duncan is responsible for enabling new F-RAM applications in the automotive industry and for the definition of new memory products.
BOOK Shelf
ZOOM: The Global Race To Fuel the Car of the Future Editor: Vijay Vaitheeswaran and Iain Carson Year of Publication: 2008 Pages: 1199 Description Oil is the problem. Cars are the solution. Zoom identifies and gives voice to a Great Awakening sweeping the industrialized world - a growing realization that in order to protect the environment and lessen our dependence on oil from volatile Middle East countries, we must rethink and recreate the automobile. This is happening, now, all over the world, in Japan, Silicon Valley, India, and China, as entrepreneurs, environmentalists, and inventors collaborate on a new generation of cars powered by hydrogen, electricity, bio-fuels, and digital technology. You may think the solutions are decades away, but Economist correspondents Iain Carson and Vijay Vaitheeswaran prove that the revolution is underway now by introducing readers to an inspiring group of visionaries who are trying to remake the automobile and energy industries. We also meet the petroleum and automobile executives in Michigan and Texas who are fighting for survival, and the savvy leaders at Toyota who have transformed their company into the world’s top automobile manufacturer. Every political candidate running for national office advocates energy reform. Zoom offers a lucid and compelling way forward.
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Car Key
Today and in the future
The Connected Key is the future. It allows the implementation of several new features and applications, and stores all the car information, tour programmes, and importantly offers connectivity.
Huanyu Gu Technical Business Development Manager, Car Access and Immobilization Sebastian Schreuder Marketing Manager Car Access and Immobilization NXP Semiconductors GmbH Germany
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he car key has come a long way. Today’s car keys include so much technology that their relationship to car keys of just a decade ago can barely be recognised. Electronics in car keys started out with the vehicle immobiliser. Car theft rates were increasing drastically during the early 90s and insurance companies demanded action from the carmakers. At the same time, the first RFID applications were coming into use for wireless identification. NXP Semiconductors realised that the same basic technology could be used to identify whether a key belongs to a car via a wireless passive RFID interface. Compared to a mechanical key, this greatly increases the security of vehicles against theft and was quickly adopted.
At the same time remote keyless entry gained popularity. Car owners appreciated the comfort of locking and unlocking their car from a distance by the push of a button. This application requires a fully printed circuit board with battery incorporated in the small space available in a key. To reduce space requirements and provide cost advantages, combichips that integrate remote keyless entry with immobiliser functionality were introduced. The most advanced of these chips can even be integrated with a transmitter. Even more comfort is provided to the driver by a Passive Keyless Entry / Go system first introduced in 1999 on the Mercedes S-Class. Here, the driver does not need to use the key to open
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the car. Instead, when reaching for the door handle, sensors initiate communication between the car and the key, verifying whether the key belongs to the car. When the driver is inside the vehicle, pressing the start button initiates communication between the car and the key. The car checks whether
it is the right key and whether it is inside the vehicle. The story of adding comfort to the driver through the car key continues with two-way communication car keys. The standard remote keyless entry system sends information only in one direction. The key does not
Communication interfaces of today’s car key
Figure 1
LF
• Immobilizer • PKE / PKG
UHF
• RKE • PKE / PKG
receive confirmation whether the car was really locked. By adding a return link, the car can immediately provide feedback on its locking status to the key. If the driver later wants to check whether he locked the car or not, he can get the information simply by pressing a button. Many more features like improved security are enabled by adding this return link. Today, Passive Keyless Entry and Go systems are available for more than 200 car models, sometimes as a standard feature. Car keys with bi-directional communication have begun to appear as well, with the Volvo S80 being one example. Naturally the technology leaders in this area have started to think about the key of the future. What will be the next big thing?
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Many believe the answer is the same that is often given in other areas of technology: Connectivity.
Communication interfaces of the Connected Key
Functions and communication technologies
Today a fully featured car key comprises the following features and functionality: • Immobiliser • Remote Keyless Entry (RKE) • Passive Keyless Entry / Go (PKE / PKG) Figure 1 depicts the communication interfaces utilised in the above car key features. Immobiliser system
An immobiliser system typically consists of a transponder, which is embedded in the car key, and a base station that is connected to the car’s engine control unit (ECU). When the driver inserts the key into the key slot and turns the key to start the engine, the engine control unit initiates the authentication with the transponder. The engine control unit and the transponder of the car share a secret key. During authentication, the engine control unit sends a random number and the ECU authentication code to the transponder. When the ECU authentication code matches the expected one, the transponder returns the ciphered random number to the vehicle for verification. After the ECU has successfully validated the transponder identity, the engine gets started. Since both the car (the ECU) and the key (the transponder) authenticate each other, this authentication process is called mutual authentication. Not all the immobiliser transponders in the market employ mutual authentication. Some also utilise the so-called challenge-response procedure. In this case, only the car authenticates the key by sending a challenge to the key and verifying the key’s response. As the key does not verify the
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UHF • RKE • PKE / PKG • Connected key
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NFC • Connected key Figure 2
authenticity of the car and therefore the challenge, the challenge response pairs can be easily collected and filed for attacks. Typically, an immobiliser system utilises low frequency (LF: 30-300 KHz) communication. Typical frequencies for the LF communication are 125kHz, e.g. the NXP Hitag-2 solution, and 134.2kHz, e.g. the TI DST solution. Besides data communication, the LF link also serves the purpose of supplying the transponder with energy. When the key is in the key slot, the transponder and the base station antennas form a loosely coupled transformer, which enables the transponder to induce energy from the LF signal for its entire operation. Immobilisation systems are required by insurance policies in many countries in Europe and North America, and are a standard component of passenger cars sold in these markets. In some other regions, such as China and India, the immobiliser system was introduced just a couple of years ago. In India, the government will soon enforce the immobilisation systems in all passenger cars to be sold in the domestic market.
Remote keyless entry
Remote Keyless Entry systems use a unidirectional UHF link, typically in the ISM (Industrial, Scientific and Medical) band with 315 MHz, 434 MHz and 868 MHz. When a button is pressed, the key fob transmits a telegram to the car using this UHF link. The car verifies the fob identity, evaluates the button command and performs the requested operation. The telegram contains a ciphered data string representing the button command, the key identity and a rolling code. The rolling code is maintained by both the key and the receiver and has to be always kept synchronised. The rolling code serves as a random number for generating the ciphered telegram data, in order to prevent the attackers from eavesdropping and replaying valid telegrams. The counter values get out of synchronisation when, for example, a fob button is pressed too many times while the fob is away from the car. When this takes place, the system needs to be resynchronised at service stations. However, if the key utilises
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Downloading car information from the key to the mobile phone
Figure 3
a combi-chip solution, in which the immobiliser and the RKE functions are integrated in one chip, the resynchronisation can easily be performed via the LF immobiliser interface without any intervention from the driver. Currently, bi-directional RKE systems are under development. The so-called two-way key will enable feedback from the car after a button command has been executed and will contribute to the enhancement of system security. Passive keyless entry
At an even higher level of chip integration, the Passive Keyless Entry
/ Go (PKE / PKG) function can be integrated on the same chip as the immobiliser and the RKE. The PKE / PKG system enables the driver to enter the car by simply pulling the door handle and to start the engine by simply pressing the ignition button in the dashboard, without the need for taking the car key out of the pocket. A PKE system consists of one or more key fobs, each with an LF receiver and a UHF transmitter while the car has several LF transmitters and a UHF receiving module. The PKE system utilises the LF link for data communication from the car to the key and the UHF link from the key to the car.
In a passive keyless entry application, the driver approaches the car and pulls the door handle. The car is triggered by this event and transmits a wakeup pattern to the key. Afterwards, the car and the key mutually authenticate each other in the same way as in an immobiliser system. The car door is unlocked if the authentication completes successfully. The PKG application is very similar to the PKE application. The mutual authentication starts when the ignition button is pressed and the engine is started upon successful authentication. The Connected Key
While the aforementioned car security and comfort applications will continue penetrating the markets, which they have not reached yet, the leading automotive chip manufacturers, system suppliers and car OEMs are already looking ahead and thinking what more to offer in the car keys in future. The Connected Key appears to be the answer. On top of the existing car key functions, the Connected Key provides the connectivity of car keys to other devices, such as mobile phones, PDAs or PCs. The connectivity is enabled by the Near Field Communication (NFC).
Demo of the Connected key
Louch
Overview
Map
Touch the key
Gas: 75% Kilometers: 79120 km Kilometers today : 20 km Touch
Option
Location
Back
Back Figure 4
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The NFC technology enables wireless short range connectivity between electronic devices. It is standardised under ISO18092 and is driven by the NFC Forum. The communication works at 13.56 MHz and has a data rate of up to 424 Kbits per second. Communication between NFC-enabled devices takes place when they are brought close to each other. The need for close distance gives the system security as well as a very intuitive “touch”. Devices can be “active” i.e. battery powered, as well as “passive”, not requiring a battery, absorbing energy from the field of an active NFC device. An NFC-enabled car
the route information will be loaded automatically into the in-car navigation system. All you need to do is to press the ignition button and start your journey. As more and more mobile phones and cars are equipped with navigation technology, another very interesting application for the connected key— the car finder—becomes possible. Many people undergo the distressing experience of having parked the car on a huge parking area, possibly in a foreign city, and trying to find it back later. The navigation system of the car could store the parking position on the key. When trying to find the car, a simple
The story of adding comfort to the driver in the car key continues with two-way communication car keys.
Features of the Connected Key
The Connected Key allows the implementation of several new features and applications. First, it can be used to display car related information on a mobile phone. For example, the driver can find out if he needs to refill the fuel tank even before entering the car. The key could also connect to other devices, such as reader stations to authorise services or discounts at a car dealer, a gas station or a shop. You might have experienced the inconvenience of planning your trip on your in-car navigation system. With a connected key, you may now comfortably plan your trip on a PC and afterwards store the route information directly into the key via an NFC reader. When you enter the car,
touch of the key to the mobile phone will enable the display of the car location. Using the GPS system of the mobile phone, the key can guide the driver back to the car. The Connected Key is often compared to a key with a display. However, Connected Key offers more benefits over the key with a display. The Connected Key does not require an internal display and so does not
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key would be a passive device and thus this feature would not require additional battery power. NXP Semiconductors is working together with major automotive suppliers to bring this technology into the car keys of the future.
need an additional battery. Also, the display in a key would need to be to be especially rugged and scratch resistant, e.g. to survive a drop on a concrete floor or withstand other keys scratching the display. Finally, a mobile phone display is larger and can show more information in comparison to what would be possible on a small key display. For the Connected Key to be successful, an NFC infrastructure is required. This is still an ongoing process. Field trials all around the world are rendering positive results. NXP Semiconductors and SONY have set up a joint venture called Moversa. This new company is developing a Secure Access Module. When brought together with an NFC chip, this will enable a universal contactless IC platform for mobile phones that can be used globally. As we have seen, today’s car keys have many communication interfaces. Adding another interface like NFC, which is standardised, enables many new features. Especially, processing and displaying car related information with an NFC-enabled mobile phone brings a whole range of new possibilities. The process of establishing an NFC infrastructure is gaining momentum and is fundamental for the future of the Connected Key.
Huanyu Gu is the technical business development Manager for Car Access and Immobilization at NXP Semiconductors. He holds an MSc in Information & Media Technologies from Hamburg University of Technology and an MBA in Technology Management from Northern Institute of Technology Hamburg. Prior to the current position, Huanyu Gu was the Customer Application Support Engineer, providing support in Tire Pressure Monitoring Systems, Remote Keyless Entry Systems and Passive Keyless Entry Systems to industrial customers. Sebastian Schreuder is the marketing manager of Car Access and Immobilization at NXP Semiconductors. He holds a Masters in Electrical Engineering from the Univierstiy of Karlsruhe and an MBA degree from the Collège des Ingénieurs, Paris. Schreuder has also worked as the Junior Consultant for Project and Process Management at Daimler.
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Electricity Fuel
Driving new utility-automaker collaboration Electricity as an alternative fuel provides significant benefits while offering opportunities for new auto and utility industry collaboration and business models that can change the historical transportation and energy paradigm.
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s the volatility in the price and supply of oil continues to challenge our energy security and our economy, the United States faces a historic crossroad: Either we continue down the road of complete oil dependence and carefree consumption, or we blaze a pioneering new trail toward energy-efficient, sustainable vehicle and fuel alternatives. As the director of electric transportation at Southern California Edison (SCE), I believe the “electrification of our transportation future” could represent one of the most significant opportunities this nation has, to reinvent itself as a global leader in sustainable transportation solutions. From seaports to airports, truck stops to trains, commuter cars to buses, “electricity fuel” and electric-drive technologies are increasingly viewed as some of the best ways to meaningfully reduce our petroleum consumption. No matter which camp of the climate change “human impact” debate you fall in, everyone can agree that there’s an essential need to mitigate the environmental deterioration from transportation use. Here again “electricity” fuel and electric-drive have a future starring role to play in cleaning up the environment. But electrifying
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transportation on its own is not enough. We must pursue multiple solutions on the vehicle and with the fuel. In the near term, within the next 10 years, vehicles will likely include new engine and transmission technologies, increased flex-fuel capability, and increased hybridisation—a matured battery technology leading to plug-in hybrids and electric vehicles (EVs), smaller and more fuel-efficient vehicles, and better aerodynamics and recyclability across the entire industry. Fuel stations will include increasing fuel blends, more availability of alternative fuels such as ethanol and biodiesel, and more use of electricity as a transportation fuel. In the mid-term, 10 to 20 years from now, we should see significant availability of flex-fuel vehicles, the mass adoption of hybrids and plugin hybrids, the growth in pure-battery EVs, and possibly an emerging availability of fuel cell EVs. In terms of fuel, we should see growing infrastructure supporting ethanol and possibly hydrogen from sustainable feedstocks; an electrical grid that continues to integrate clean renewables such as wind and solar; sustained emission reductions through old power plant retirements; new emission con-
Edward Kjaer Director of Electric Transportation Southern California Edison USA
trol technologies on new or existing power plants; and new applications such as energy storage or distributed energy resources. It is going to take a combination of all of these different vehicle technologies and fuel solutions to wean this nation from its transportation oil dependency and clean up the environment. Electricity grid - A security asset
Today, the good news on the alternative-fuel side is that unlike ethanol, biodiesel, or hydrogen, electricity has a ubiquitous infrastructure already in place with significant excess capacity for fueling transportation. In fact, a December 2006 study by the U.S. Department of Energy indicated that the existing US electrical grid has sufficient excess capacity off-peak to fuel about 73 per cent of the nation’s light-duty fleet (about 217 million vehicles). Another study in 2007 by the Natural Resources Defense Council and the Electric Power Research Institute indicated that widespread adoption of plug-in hybrid-electric vehicles (PHEVs) by 2050 could reduce petroleum consumption by three million to four million barrels per day, while lessening vehicle greenhouse gas emissions by up to 450 million metric
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SCE “ Garage of the future” 1-3 kW Photo Voltaic Panels Customer HAN Control Interface Up to 9 kW Load Bank Home Energy Storage Device 6-10kWh PHEV Charging & Discharging PHEV 120 & 240 V Charging Figure 1
tons per year (or the equivalent of taking 82 million cars off the road). Other advantages of using electricity as a transportation fuel include the facts that it is domestically produced, virtually petroleum-free, and about 25 to 50 per cent of the cost of a gallon of gasoline equivalent today. In addition, vehicle miles powered by the grid get cleaner as the vehicle gets older, because power plants on the grid as a whole are getting cleaner. Clearly the electrical grid, if fully utilised by transportation in the future, could serve as one of the nation’s most significant steps toward energy independence. There is a cloud in front of this silver lining, however. We have the fuel, we just don’t have the vehicles yet. Today, automakers around the world are developing next-generation plug-in hybrids and electric vehicles. Thanks, in no small part, to the gasoline hybrids on the road today, hybrid propulsion systems are maturing rapidly. However, developing an advanced energy battery still remains a challenge. Lithium-ion technology shows tremendous promise to meet vehicle charging and discharging needs, but there are questions yet to be fully answered around calendar life, safety, cost and recyclability.
Utilities, automakers and battery makers working together
Industry stakeholders are moving forward together to “crack the code” on energy storage batteries. Utilities, universities, automakers and battery makers are all working toward making effective energy storage technologies a reality. To understand the potential of batteries in plug-in vehicles, and as part of the future electrical energy system, SCE and Ford Motor Company announced a groundbreaking collaboration in the fall of 2006. The effort will examine the future of PHEVs as part of a complete energy system that incorporates the home, vehicle and electricity grid. SCE has begun to receive a small fleet of Ford Escape plugin hybrids. After an extensive testing programme in 2008, these vehicles eventually will be rotated throughout SCE’s 50,000 square miles of service territory and placed in customers’ hands for real-world evaluation. This programme will generate data and understanding on load profiles, customer charging patterns, connection and communication issues and vehicle performance characteristics. SCE already has more than 20 years of industry-leading electric transportation expertise. Today, we operate
the nation’s largest, most successful electric vehicle fleet – nearly 300 vehicles, which have collectively travelled almost 16 million miles. At our nationally recognised Electric Vehicle Technical Center in Pomona, Calif., we have been evaluating plug-in vehicle prototypes as well as next-generation advanced lithium-ion batteries for several years now. It will take industry collaborations such as the Ford-SCE programme to truly understand and unlock the potential of energy storage in both the automotive and energy industries. Energy battery storage from and for the grid
In the short term, the advanced energy battery in a PHEV could create a “vehicle-to-home” connection by providing stored energy for occasional onsite emergency backup or occasional “peak shaving” that helps customers avoid high electricity costs during daytime critical energy-use periods. In the mid-term, the use of off-peak power to charge PHEVs could help utilities effectively increase the efficiency of existing power plants. This, in turn, could spread fixed costs over more kilowatt-hour sales, which could result in lower rates for customers.
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And finally, in the long term, PHEVs and stationary energy storage batteries could offer the potential ability to move energy back and forth throughout the electric grid, helping to enhance grid reliability, energy efficiency and energy cost-effectiveness. Though “vehicle-to-grid” and large volumes of stationary energy storage are further on the horizon, we are seeing a fundamental change in the way utilities may operate in the future. Since their inception, utilities have needed to produce electricity on demand to meet customer needs instantaneously. Now comes the possibility of producing electricity at night when costs are
the grid. To evaluate and demonstrate this, SCE’s Electric Vehicle Technical Center is building a demonstration “garage of the future” systems study to integrate PHEV bi-directional capabilities, solar (photovoltaic) panels, energy storage and advanced meter customer controls (Figure 1). Garage of the future
Southern California Edison is working on a demonstration “garage of the future” systems study to integrate plugin hybrid-electric vehicles with the electric grid and energy battery storage for home use. To move forward on the potential for vehicle-to-home systems,
The electrical grid, if fully utilised by transportation in the future, could serve as one of the nation’s most significant steps toward energy independence.
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SCE is helping drive a coordinated effort with utilities around the world, the Electric Power Research Institute and automakers on global connection and communication standards. In addition, SCE is working on several other forward-looking initiatives not only for on-road vehicles, but also for other electric transportation technologies, such as electric goods movement equipment at airports, marine ports, truck facilities and rail yards. Driving down the cost of advanced batteries
As the critical first step, the auto and utility industries, in partnership with
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lower, and storing that electricity in batteries to allow real-time customer response to changing electric system conditions. Energy storage through PHEVs and stationary energy batteries also could support the increased use of clean, renewable generation such as wind. SCE currently leads the nation in renewable power delivery, and serves about 16 per cent of its customers’ needs with energy from renewable resources. SCE is helping to facilitate the connection among the vehicle, clean grid and energy storage devices with an industry-leading, advanced metering system called EdisonSmart Connect. Between 2009 and 2012, SCE plans to replace five million residential and small business electric meters with next-generation “smart meters” that include a two-way wireless interface allowing customers to better manage their energy consumption by immediately seeing how their usage affects their bill. The smart meters also will have the ability to manage the connection of PHEVs with
battery manufacturers and government, need to get batteries to drive the wheels. Then they can look at helping to power the house, and using advanced batteries for other stationary and distributed generation applications. Based on evaluations and testing currently underway, it may be possible for combined volume commitments to be made in the future for plug-in hybrids and stationary energy storage batteries. The goal would be for utilities and automakers to jointly contribute to lowering battery costs. SCE, in partnership with automakers and other stakeholders, is assessing this potential now. In addition, SCE also is evaluating the potential of secondary battery applications to help create a battery “residual value” that is not currently present today. So now, auto manufacturers and utilities are working together to create new business models based on a common connection—the customer. We need to develop solutions that not only provide vehicles and features that consumers want, but that also benefit the utility and its customers with lower energy costs. Each industry brings its respective area of expertise, automakers in developing and marketing vehicle technologies, and utilities in ensuring a safe, reliable and efficient electric supply while helping customers manage energy use. Both industries need to get it right, but the progress so far shows great proise for using this new partnership approach to bring about real changes that create a truly sustainable transportation future.
Edward Kjaer has been the director of the Electric Transportation Department at Southern California Edison since 1999. He is responsible for all facets of the Department’s electro-drive activities, including system impact and assessment of various technologies, customer education, load management and energy efficiency programmes, rates and incentives, low-emission vehicle fleet compliance, and operation of the industry-leading Electric Vehicle Technology Center.
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Global Trends in Dynamic Traffic Services Focus on Asia Pacific Increasing urban traffic in Asia Pacific calls for the implementation of dynamic traffic information services. But it is not easy. Howard Hayes Vice President, NAVTEQ Traffic NAVTEQ Corporation USA
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ehicle navigation systems are transitioning from closed systems, using only static content, to ones that incorporate dynamic information delivered on a real-time basis. As digital navigation continues to amplify in breadth from dynamic turn-by-turn routing, traffic information services rank atop the list of desired additional services. Heavy and ever-worsening traffic congestions are driving customer demand for high-quality traffic services. As a result, traffic is the number one most sought “navigation add-on” in both North America and Western Europe. With the exception of Korea and Japan, traffic services are more available and more advanced in North America and Western Europe as compared to the Asia Pacific region. NAVTEQ expects a steady increase in the usage of traffic services in all key markets around the world as traffic conditions worsen, navigation devices proliferate, and communication technologies expand.
Paris and London have swelled, as they have in the rest of the world’s cities. In the US, the Texas Transportation Institute estimates that the average commuter now loses 38 hours per year due to traffic congestion, up from 14 hours in 1982. This is due to the fact that vehicle population and overall roadway usage is growing at a faster rate than roadway mileage. For instance, TTI reports that between 2000 and 2005, freeway travel around Chicago grew 12 per cent while actual roadway expansion grew at a 2 per cent rate. Suburban communities suffer from similar patterns of peak travel time gridlock, with the idea of a ‘reverse commute’ no longer proving valid. Whether drivers are exiting or entering a major city at the end of a workday, their trips are lengthening. Traffic congestion in Singapore, in particular, is causing city planners to influence auto usage with driving restrictions and toll fees, as has already occurred in London.
Consumer appeal for dynamic traffic services
Meeting the congestion challenge
NAVTEQ has very recently conducted research among North American and Western European GPS navigation users. In two separate studies, results indicate the strong demand for dynamic traffic information (Figure 1). • Of portable navigation device and factory fitted navigation system users in Europe, 17 per cent rank traffic as the most desired dynamic content • Of factory fitted navigation system users in the US, 28 per cent found traffic to be the most desired dynamic content offering Need for dynamic traffic services
The clear global trend is that each year, congestion grows and commute times escalate, driving demand for traffic services delivered to the car. The spheres of congestion around major cities like Beijing, Shanghai, NY, Chicago, L.A.,
Greater traffic congestion and longer commutes are the source for the growing demand for more timely and precise traffic information. In Europe, the groundwork for traffic services dates back to the early 1980s when innova-
tion began with the introduction of RDS defined TMC services. Today, most FM stations in Western Europe use RDS, and receivers with RDS capabilities (mostly in-vehicle radios) are widely available across Europe. The most developed markets in the region for traffic information services are France, Germany and the UK, where services are provided mainly for controlled access roads. Traffic-aware navigation first appeared in North America in 2004 pioneered by the Acura RL and the Cadillac STS delivered on the XM Radio platform. Since then, the market has burgeoned and traffic-aware services are now plentiful and found in a broad range of automotive, PND, and mobile phone-based navigation systems. Following the 2004 service launch, 14 car models offered traffic service in 2006 and 39 models in 2007. Because of the prominence of its government backed vehicle information and communication system (VICS, developed in 1996) and its early introduction of a sensor based navigation system (by Honda) in 1981, Japan has led the Asia-Pacific traffic information market. Dynamic traffic services appeared in Korea prior to 2005, while traffic information is beginning to be offered
Percentage of navigation system users who ranked feature 1 or 2 Traffic
Weather North America Europe
Parking
Fuel Price 0%
5%
10%
15%
20%
25%
30%
35% Figure 1
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in Singapore and Taiwan as well. Other Asian countries at this point look forward to developing traffic information services. NAVTEQ believes that market fundamentals including rapidly worsening traffic conditions and the maturation of relevant technologies, will drive introduction and growth of traffic services in those markets Implementing dynamic traffic information services
Implementing dynamic traffic information services requires a coordinated effort across a wide number of industry participants. Diverse factors such as data quality, data formats, communication technologies and business models must be simultaneously addressed. This coordination has existed to adequate degrees in North America and Europe, although emerging technologies continue to present new challenges. Though many Asian markets do not yet possess coordination across the business system that will be needed for successful traffic services, this concerted activity will occur sooner rather than later. Components needed for dynamic traffic services Data
High quality traffic data is the foundation of any successful traffic service. In North America and Western Europe, traffic data collection is established based on two decades worth of development, as well as fairly broad-based government support. Incident data is collected by a variety of public authorities as well as video cameras and aerial surveillance by private companies. Roadway speed values are captured on the most heavily travelled roads using sensors. Emerging technologies such as GPS tracking of “probe vehicles” (sometimes called floating vehicle data) and mobile network solutions (in which the movement of mobile phones through cellular networks is used to form traffic information) are be-
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ginning to have an impact on traffic data collection. This remains a challenge for Asia Pacific countries, especially in the short-term, as traffic data collection and organisation requires some level of government support (as has been the case for North America and Western Europe). Japan’s VICS and South Korea’s recently established Telematics Information Center (TELIC) are the exceptions in this region. It is important to note that emerging technologies like mobile phone and GPS-based probes alleviate the need for government coordination to a degree. There is not a unique approach or strategy for data collection that will beat all the others. Data formats
The lack of standard data formats remains a huge challenge for the
the “lowest common denominator” data format, losing key information. In Europe and North America, the Traveler Information Services Association Forum (formerly the TMC Forum) have established standards including the widely used “Alert C” specification for encoding traffic information for use in navigation systems. These standards have in turn been adopted by organisations such as the Society of Automotive Engineers. Common traffic data standards have proven essential for proliferation in other markets; this process is in more nascent stages in Asia. For instance, in China, both the TMC and VICS formats have been under evaluation since 2005. Until standards are agreed upon, it will be difficult to coordinate activity across industry participants to achieve economies of scale for traffic products.
Implementing dynamic traffic information services requires a coordinated effort across a wide number of industry participants. traffic industry, particularly in Asia Pacific. Data needs to change hands from data originator, through the data communications channel, and ultimately be incorporated into a navigation application. This coordination can best be achieved through adherence to common data formats. Data formats are also essential for properly locating traffic information on maps. In general, each public and private provider of traffic data takes their own approach to data feeds, resulting in a wide array of formats and protocols (such as XML, binary, text, FTP, HTTP, CDMA, Web services etc.). This poses a challenge for data aggregators in scrubbing and synthesising the data into one format that can then be used by end-user delivery channels. It also can cause data to be “dumbed down” to fit
Communications delivery
A wide range of delivery technologies are available to distribute traffic data to mobile devices. Some technologies are ubiquitous around the world. These technologies include RDS-TMC broadcasts over analog FM radio as well as cellular network delivery. In North America, high bandwidth broadcast is available via satellite radio and hybrid digital (HD) radio. These high bandwidth channels enable communication of nearly 15 times more data than widely used RDS-TMC networks. The European market has yet to see commercial launch of satellite radio and high bandwidth FM broadcasts have not taken firm hold, in part, because countries have not adopted common broadcast standards.
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Most Asian cities have a vibrant communications industry which can be engaged to deliver traffic data. FM radio station networks can provide a basic distribution outlet and cellular phone networks also provide an attractive channel. The emergence of high bandwidth broadcast networks and / or large area Internet networks (e.g. WiMax) can provide breakthroughs, but these must be developed for other uses and then leveraged by traffic providers. Business models and applications
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Currently, five general business models are available: • Free: In many European markets government agencies and private radio networks align to make RDS-TMC services freely available • Periodic subscription: In the US, satellite radio providers offer navigation traffic services for a surcharge of approximately US$ 4 per month. This requires a billing mechanism and a means for ongoing communication with end users. • One-time fee: The VICS service in Japan and many premium traffic services in EU embed one-time fees into the price of the (VICS) receiver in the navigation product. • Transaction fee: While theoretically available, transaction based pricing has not been shown to be a successful model in the vehicle market. • Advertising: Enormous potential exists for advertising models to further drive wide-spread consumer adoption
of traffic services. In North America, advertising models generate well in excess of 90 per cent of the over US$ 400 million in annual revenue from commercial traffic services (which consist mostly of radio and television traffic news reports). It is unclear whether the power of the advertising model can be harnessed to propel adoption in the same way, as it has driven adoption of other services such as television, radio, and the internet. OEMs understandably may be reluctant to open up the vehicle environment for advertising-supported traffic without first thoroughly testing the services. A great deal of work is underway in North America and Europe to select the right business models to drive wide spread adoption. Momentum seems to be building for the one-time fee approach within the vehicle segment. This is likely due to the relatively high cost of the vehicle (as compared to personal navigation devices), resulting in the onetime fee having a negligible impact on the overall purchase price. Many cellular telephone applications in North America are already advertising based and do not charge a fee to consumers. Traffic is the entrée – But what’s next?
As stated earlier, traffic services are driving the transition of vehicle navigation systems from closed to open systems that incorporate information delivered on a real-time basis. Once connectiv-
ity to a device is established for traffic services, other content and services can be introduced. This “second step” is already underway in North America and to a degree, in Europe. The development of in-vehicle traffic information services will play out differently in Western Europe and Asia-Pacific, as their respective government programmes and infrastructures vary greatly. Future dynamic traffic services
As connectivity to devices has been established, complementary services are leveraging the same basic infrastructure. NAVTEQ sees weather, fuelprices and parking information as the next demand-driven services to be provided through real time traffic delivery. Weather conditions are desired for their impact on travel times. Fuel prices will be important as they continue to climb. Finally, parking is desired because of its high impact on travel time and the convenience this information would provide. There is a range of services already emerging in North America with Microsoft’s ‘MSN Direct’, Sirius’ ‘Connect’ and NAVTEQ’s HD Radio Service. One link will be proven critical worldwide, the true consumer value of in-vehicle dynamic traffic services is inextricably pegged to the accuracy of the underlying maps on which these services are predicated.
Howard Hayes is currently the vice president of NAVTEQ Traffic. He holds an MBA from Harvard Business School and a BA from Dartmouth College. Hayes started his career as a management consultant for McKinsey and Company and later established Ceres Partnership. Prior to working at NAVTEQ he worked with Outboard Marine Corporation as Vice President, Strategy.
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Driver Assist The road ahead Driver assist or intelligent vehicle safety systems are emerging as a crucial technology for improving auto safety and to lower society’s cost of auto accidents.
D
river assist systems or intelligent vehicle safety systems are emerging rapidly due to their potential to lower many of the negative aspects related to transportation—accidents, injuries, deaths and the many elements of economic loss from accidents. Need for Driver Assist Systems
The automobile industry provides tremendous value to all the segments of the modern society, but therte are significant negative aspects of automobile usage such as accidents. Most of the time, the crashes take place due to driver errors such as their inattention while driving. In fact, over 90 per cent of the accidents are caused by driver errors. The costs of accidents are staggering (Table 1).
Egil Juliussen Principal Analyst and Co-founder Telematics Research Group Inc. USA
The most important data points are: the average cost per accident (US$ 36,500) and the overall accident costs (2.3 per cent of GDP of the US). The cost includes all of society’s costs such as property damage, healthcare, salary loss and other related costs. The accident statistics for the Western European countries are similar, but the overall accident cost as a percentage of GDP (1.5–2 per cent) is less than that of the US. However, since the GDP of the Western Europe is higher than that of the US, the absolute yearly accidents of both the regions are more or less the same. Driver assist systems are designed to lower the frequency of the most common types of accidents by eliminating many driver mistakes. Taking into
USA 2005 Accident Statistics Summary Fatal Accidents
• 38.2 thousand accidentts
• 59.4 thousand vehicles
Injury Accidents
• 1.82 million accidents
• 3.29 million vehicles
Property Accidents
• 4.30 million accidents
• 7.51 million vehicles
Total Accidents
• 6.16 million accidents
• 10.86 million vehicles
Autos
• 33.0 thousand deaths
• 2.5 million injuries
Cycles
• 4.55 thousand deaths
• 87 thousand injuries
Pedestrian/others
• 5.85 thousand deaths
• 118 thousand injuries
Total
• 43.4 thousand deaths
• 2.7 million injuries
Accident cost
•Average: US$ 36,500 per accident
• Total*: US$ 230 billion; GDP %: 2.3
* Total cost refers to data for the year 2000; Compiled from the USA Department of Transportation Table 1
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consideration the huge costs to the society due to accidents, the investments on driver assist systems will definitely be fruitful. However, the high initial price of each driver assist system means that the usage penetration will take a decade or more until they move from luxury cars to entry cars. Society’s ROI on driver assist systems is high enough to warrant a faster deployment based on incentives to auto buyers and manufacturers. Objectives
Driver assist systems are designed to bring down the occurrence of the most common accidents and • Improve driver response time via early danger detection and notification • Improve safety margins through driving hazard warnings • Enhance driver vision at night, in fog, for blind spots and in curves • Improve driver skills by limiting driver errors and overreaction • Counteract distraction from infotainment and mobile devices • Improve convenience by making the drive less tiring, less boring and less stressful • Mitigate severity of an accident when a crash is inevitable Current driver assist systems are standalone systems that target the most common types of accidents.
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Systems
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Future systems will be more integrated and will enable communication with other vehicles and roadway infrastructures such as intersection systems.
OEM Park Assist Availabity 70 60 50 USA W Europe China Japan All regions
40 30 20 10 0
Camera 06
Camera 07
Camera 08
Ultra Sonic 06
Ultra Sonic 07
Ultra Sonic 08
Figure 1
OCM ACC and LDW Availability 18 16 Percentage
14
USA W Europe China Japan All regions
12 10 8 6 4 2 0
MY 06 ACC
MY 07 ACC
MY 08 ACC
MY 06 LDW
MY 07 LDW
MY 08 LDW
Figure 2
Driver Assist Trends •Workload Management
•Pedestrain Protection
•Driver Monitoring
Other Driver Assist
•Collision Mitigation • Collision Warning •Night Vision
•Brake Assist
•Collision Avoidance •Road Sign Recognition
Autonomous Driving Integrated ADAS
•Map-based driver assist (ADAS) Lane Drive Assist Adaptive Cruise Control
•BSD & Lane Change Assist
Integrated Lane Assist
• Blind Spot Detection • Lane Departure Warning
•LDW & Lane Keeping
•Stop-Go ACC
•Platoon Drive ACC
Highway Speed ACC
•Camera PA Park Assist • Ultrasonic PA
•Cooperative ACC • Camera & object detection • Self-parking Time
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Integrated Park Assist Figure 3
Present scenario
Availability of driver assist systems is growing rapidly across the world. Telematics Research Group tracks the availability of most driver assist systems for many countries of the world. Figure 1 shows the availability of camera and ultrasonic park assistance (UPA) systems for key regions of the world. Ultrasonic park assist is more prevalent than any other driver assist systems due to its low cost. Western Europe has the highest ultrasound parking availability than any other region in the world, with over 73 per cent of the vehicles manufactured in 2008 having such systems as an option or standard equipment. Japan, due to its large-scale usage of navigation systems, has the highest availability of camera-based parking assist systems with nearly 33 per cent of cars manufactured in 2008 containing those systems. In the US, camera park availability has grown phenomenally, from 9 per cent in 2006 to nearly 31 per cent in 2008. Surprisingly, China has high parking assist availability as 16 per cent of its 2008 car models are equipped with camera park assist systems and 60 per cent with ultrasound parking assist systems. Figure 2 illustrates the availability of Adaptive Cruise Control (ACC) and Lane Departure Warning (LDW) systems. Japan is the leader in using ACC as nearly 18 per cent of the 2008 models have ACC as option or standard equipment. Japan was also the leader in LDW system, but in 2008, USA surpassed Japan with 5.7 per cent of models having LDW systems as optional or standard equipment, compared to 4.1 per cent in Japan.
E lectrical and E lectronics
Market potential
Worldwide OEM Drive Assist Forecast 50 40 PA-Camera PA-Ultrasound ACC LDW BSD
#M
30 20 10 0
2007
2008
2012
where the ACC systems allow multiple cars to move as a group with minimal spacing between them. LDW systems will also see increasing functionality. Lane Keeping Assist functionality is already appearing and Lane Changing Assist functions will soon be added. Blind Spot Detection (BSD) functionality is also likely to be added to LDW systems in the future. Standalone BSD systems will remain viable due to their low price. LDW system sales were less than 0.2 million units in 2007, but are expected to increase to 3.8 million by 2012 and over 36 million units by 2020. BSD systems are just emerging and had sales of only 23,000 systems in 2007. Strong BSD growth is projected to reach 2.8 million units by 2012 and over 37 million systems by 2020. Future driver assist perspectives
Driver assist systems are in their infancy and will undergo tremendous technological advances and strong sales growth in the future. The previous market forecasts are based on normal development from luxury car entry to mid-range cars and eventually to entry level cars when prices have declined due to volume production. The previous forecasts will become too A uthor
Currently, the UPA is the most common driver assist system due to its low price. Over 10 million ultrasound parking systems were sold worldwide in 2007 and this is expected to touch nearly 30 million units by 2012 and over 53 million systems by 2020. Figure 4 shows TRG’s projected worldwide sales of currently available OEM supplied driver assist systems. Aftermarket systems are not included in these estimates. Forecasts for 2015 and 2020 are also included, but such forecasts are speculative due to rapid technological changes and advances. Note that many of today’s separate driver assist systems will become integrated systems in the next five years, and will retain current functionalities, but with significant capability improvements. The growing use of navigation systems will increase the usage of camerabased parking assist systems as they can use the navigation display to show the camera view. The functionality of camera-based parking assist systems will increase substantially in the next decade. The first step is the emerging “birds-eye” view of the car in relation to the parking space. This is a synthesised top-down view, which is very useful for the driver. Self-parking systems are also emerging and as the technology improves, they will take an increasing share of camera-based PA systems. Worldwide camera parking assist system sales topped 2.2 million units in 2007 and are expected to reach 7.7 million units by 2012 and over 25 million systems by 2020. ACC systems are the third most popular driver assist device today with estimated sales of nearly 1.3 million units in 2007, with a forecast of 7.4 million units by 2012 and 34 million units by 2020. During this period, the ACC functionality will increase mostly from the current highway-speed ACC to stop-and-go ACC in a few years and then to cooperative ACC by 2015. By 2020, many ACC systems are likely to include platoon driving features
2015
2020
Figure 4
low if incentives are available to fast-track the deployment of driver assist systems. It will be interesting to see if any countries will put such incentives in place for the auto buyers and/or auto manufacturers. Figure 3 gives a qualitative view of the likely evolution of the various driver assist system categories. Mapbased driver assist or Advanced Driver Assist Systems (ADAS) are emerging and will become important in the next few years. ADAS uses the map as a “sensor”, in the sense that the digital map provides detailed information about lanes, curves, road slopes and many other useful attributes. Conclusion
Driver assist systems have the potential to significantly lower many of the negative aspects related to automotive driving. Some driver assist systems have the potential to improve gas mileage of the automobiles. As the numbers of ACC systems reach about 10 per cent market penetration, such systems will even the traffic flow and minimise the stop-andgo pattern that wastes gas. ADAS systems that have knowledge of curves and hills also have substantial potential to improve gas mileage.
Egil Juliussen is the principal analyst and Co-founder of Telematics Research Group. He holds BS, MS, and PhD degrees in Electrical Engineering from Purdue University. He has more than 25 years of experience in Market and Technology Analysis and Forecasting in Information Technology, Wireless Communications and Vehicle Telematics. In the last 30 years, Dr. Juliussen’s work includes over 500 papers, reports and conference presentations.
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India
Gearing up for new challenges James Tobin talks about the auto components industry in India and the Tier 1s like Magna operating in India.
James J Tobin EVP, Business Development President, Asia Magna International, Inc.
Indian auto components industry has emerged from being a supplier to the domestic market to being one of the preferred choices for sourcing auto components. What are the important factors that have contributed to this growth? India has a strong educated workforce and a strong engineering talent. With sales of cars increasing, there has been a rapid increase in the volume of auto components supplied to the domestic market, leading to efficiencies of volume. India’s growth as the preferred destination for sourcing auto components can be attributed to factors such as easy availability of raw materials at lower price, developing infrastructure facilities (though a lot needs to be done), foreign car manufacturers setting up manufacturing bases in India, etc. OEM global platforms are required to supply to regions such as India. Some of the global OEMs have already made India the base to export to other countries based on logistics costs.
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components and ancillaries
How far have Indian component manufacturers come in terms of achieving domain expertise to offer specialised services to global OEM manufacturers who are willing to outsource their core component requirements? What according to you are the ways to improve domain expertise and compete with global majors? Indian component manufacturers do well in absorbing design expertise and deploying low cost manufacturing solutions. With an increase in the design abilities, Indian component manufacturers will then acquire sufficient domain expertise. There are quite a few ways to develop in this regard. One way to do it is to partner with global technology majors. Early involvement of engineering and science students will also help by taking advantage of India’s strong educational network. What are the major growth areas for the Indian auto components sector? What according to you are the key strategies that domestic components suppliers need to adopt to compete in the global market? The forecast for the Indian market indicates that OEMs will increase their production from 1.8 million units in 2007 to a projected 4.8 million units by 2013. As a result, suppliers will need to continuously build facilities for domestic consumption as well as for exporting. It is necessary to develop or obtain access to latest technologies. For example, just as India “leap frogged” the land line phase by adding resources rapidly in the wireless industry, the Indian auto industry needs to move to more efficient modern technologies. At the same time it has to be environmental friendly. What are the challenges that foreign OEMs and Tier 1s face while sourcing components from India? What strategy does Magna employ to mitigate such challenges?
Access to modern technology, infrastructure delays, which cause high inventory carrying costs and emerging global support system to take care of customers are certain challenges that foreign manufacturers face when they source components from India. Magna has become the world’s most diversified auto component supplier and contract vehicle manufacturer primarily by focussing on technologies that deliver better products at competitive prices. Part of the reason for our continued success is the ability to leverage our global footprint, diversified product line and innovative technologies. Automobile manufacturers are concentrating on developing low emission cars powered by renewables or biofuels. In this scenario, how should Indian component manufacturers gear up to meet the changing production requirements of OEMs? Utilising resources provided by the Indian educational system is the key. The leading research and applications of new technology in alternate fuels or lower emissions will make it easier for Indian component suppliers to partner with global companies and help develop such systems. Also, participating in programmes run by the Indian government will help develop their expertise, and fulfill the global requirements of the various OEMs. What role does Magna’s Indian operation play in the company’s global strategy? What is the strategy behind Magna’s recent spate of joint ventures? Our Magna India office was established to support the growth of our groups and assist in their Indian sales and global sourcing activities. With more and more customers developing global programs such as Suzuki, GM, Ford, Tata and Mahindra amongst
others, our Indian presence in the form of the engineering offices and manufacturing centres, helps us deliver solutions to our customers in almost all major automotive markets including India. Magna looks forward to enter into a JV when it supports our global growth strategy and meets the parameters within the region. For instance, we look forward to have partnership with a company who has the customer base we are looking to do business with and / or a company which offers a product or technology which enhances our growth in the region. The recent announcement regarding the Magna Powertrain and Amtek JV is a good example. This joint venture is the first important step in the Indian market for Magna Powertrain. The future of Indian auto components industry in your words or any other comments you would like to make... India is a key part of most of the global companies’ overall growth strategy. Global OEM growth will increase to 84.5 million units by 2013 with significant growth in countries such as India. Therefore, it is important for global companies to be in those regions to support the growth and protect their traditional markets, while participating in the development of the Indian auto industry. The government will have to continue to work on the infrastructure required to support the growth (i.e. roads, electricity, etc.). Better infrastructure would mean higher car market penetration. There has been an increase in the range of models offered with a number of OEMs entering India. This will lead to product segmentation and development of niche products targeted to more specific market segments. This, on the one hand would mean increase number of the small volume programmes, but on the other hand means larger overall market size.
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engineering ser v ices
The India Story Stiff competition in domestic automotive market is forcing OEMs and automotive component manufacturers in North America and Western Europe to outsource and offshore their engineering requirements to low-cost countries.
C
ut-throat competition in the US and European automotive markets coupled with rising labour costs and shorter product cycles are drastically impacting the profitability of automotive manufacturers. Automotive manufacturers who are able to maintain the shortest “concept-to-market product cycle” at the lowest production cost will emerge as market leaders. In an attempt to lower production costs and streamline production lifecycles, OEMs and component manufacturers in the US and Europe are adapting offshoring and outsourcing of engineering services such as designing. Why outsource?
The time taken to design new cars has shrunk from five years a decade ago to 10 months now. Increasingly, engineering drawings are becoming more complex as vehicle manufacturers introduce niche vehicles across various segments to meet changing consumer preferences. In order to keep product development costs low without affecting product life cycles, more of the design work is being outsourced to low-cost destinations. By outsourcing the design work to low-cost countries like India, US automotive manufacturers can save
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Omer Ahmed Siddiqui Assistant Editor Auto Focus Asia
between 10-30 per cent of their production costs. Aravind Melligeri, President of Quest Engineering & Software Technologies, a developer of passenger cars in the US notes that, in 2004 a typical US automotive manufacturer could get engineering drawings developed in India for approximately US$ 1 million, whereas the same would cost thrice as much in the US. In addition, matured domestic markets are forcing the European and US automotive manufacturers to gain a foothold and expand their reach in developing markets. Compared to the OEMs, component manufacturers are way ahead in outsourcing their operations such as component designing due to their lean business structure and the pressure from OEMs to keep production costs down. Reasons for outsourcing vary. General Motors outsources a part of its operations to cut costs, while Toyota considers outsourcing as a tool to develop new markets and to use the diversified talent pool around the globe to enhance its output and quality. Outsourcing scenario in India – Industry analysis
Outsourcing in industries such as infor-
mation technology started much earlier than the automotive industry. In the automotive domain, a constraint was the need to share product-specific information, which is intellectual property of the company and requires development of trust among the business partners. In the initial phase, engineering services outsourced to India were limited to drawing and converting 2D images to 3D images. Today, Indian companies have moved up the value chain and are handling critical tasks such as development of designs for automotive machinery and tools, patented products, and conversion of engineered drawings from paper to CAD. They are developing chip designs and designing electronic circuits that are finding increasing use in modern automotives. Categories of engineering service providers in India Captives
These are the business units of foreign OEMs such as GM, Delphi, Renault and Ford. Renault operates its automotive designing centre named “Design India” in Mumbai to design vehicles for the Indian and other regional markets. In order to explore various car design cultures, Renault in partner-
engineering ser v ices
ship with Autocar magazine conducts ‘IndDesign,’ a car design competition. Subsidiaries of Indian OEMs
Some of the Indian OEMs such as Mahindra, Hero and Eicher belong to this category. For example, in July 2003, Mahindra and Mahindra established a subsidiary named Mahindra Engineering Services that operates through an inhouse design team. The subsidiary provides design and product development services for the automotive industry and also develops other industrial products. Independent engineering design firms
These include companies such as Plexicon, DC Design and Neilsoft. For instance, Neilsoft offers design and detailed engineering services such as design modelling, design validation and design automation across the entire vehicle development programme. IT service providers
This category includes companies such as TCS, Satyam, Wipro, Infosys, etc. These Indian IT giants are entering the engineering service outsourcing industry which is still in its nascent stage in India. Companies like TCS that already offer software solutions for engineering companies can easily expand their range of services to
include product design and development. Major automotive companies including General Motors, Ford, Toyota and BMW outsource their engineering operations to either third party vendors or captive centres established in India. For example, in 2005, TCS won a major IT and engineering service contract from Scuderia Ferrari for IT and engineering services for its Formula 1 car. Daimler Chrysler established its Daimler Chrysler Research Center (DMRC) in Bangalore to conduct research in the areas of encryption, image signal processing, telematics, fuel-cell modelling, CAD, CAM, CAE and PDM for the company’s global requirements. The company has also tied up with TCS for its CAE requirements. IT giants such as Intel, Motorola and TI have gained international reputation in chip- design. For example, Intel has been developing engine control electronics such as microcontrollers since 1983. The company’s 8061 microcontrollers were first introduced in the 1983 Ford EEC-IV. Intel continues to develop innovative and highly integrated microcontrollers to help automotive manufacturers with evolving powertrain applications. These factors
leverage India’s position as a preferred destination for engineering service outsourcing. Equipped with technological expertise and availability of cheap finance, Indian companies are poised to offer complete solutions from design to manufacturing for firms outsourcing work to India. Market analysis
In September 2006, CIOL reported that automotive engineering service outsourcing market in India was valued at US$ 342 million. According to ValueNotes, Automotive design and engineering outsourcing market in India was valued at US$ 270-300 million in 2005, and is projected to cross US$ 1 billion by 2010. Foreign companies save approximately 20-40 per cent on their design and engineering cost by outsourcing. Considering the comparative cost advantage, investment in R&D to produce a new vehicle is estimated at US$ 150 million in India, as compared to US$ 600-800 million in the US. According to data published by A.T. Kearney, India holds a major share of the global automotive design outsourcing industry, which was valued at approximately US$ 9 billion in May 2007.
SWOT Analysis Strengths Major strengths of Indian engineering outsourcing industry include huge availability of engineering talent, strategic expertise and the comparative advantage of outsourcing over developing captive centres. Talent pool Among developing countries, India has the largest engineering talent pool required to take up outsourced jobs. The Indian workforce is fluent in English, flexible to work in shifts, dedicated, and can work under pressure to meet project deadlines. However, there is a perceived need to develop proper infrastructure and impart domainspecific specialised training to this talent pool to enable them meet the outsourcing requirements of multinational OEM and
component manufacturers. Dilip Chhabria, a renowned car designer has chalked up plans to establish a car design institute in Pune, India by 2009. Renault Design is the industry partner for this institute, which can train upto 1500 students. Strategic expertise Indian companies have great expertise in forging long-term partnerships with international organisations; they adapt quickly to changing global trends and business models to improve the value proposition to their clients. In order to highlight the ‘quality’ aspect of services offered in India, Indian companies are achieving quality certifications such as SEI CMM Level 5, COPC, PCMM, ISO 9001:2000.
These advantages position India ahead of other developing economies such as China in the list of outsourcing destinations. Outsourcing Vs establishing captive centres As compared to establishing captive centres, outsourcing is a more feasible option, for foreign OEMs who prefer to get their engineering operations done by a third party. Establishing captive centres requires diversion of management attention and investment in infrastructure; there is also the risk of managing a workforce in a multicultural environment. Outsourcing can help tide over these problems.
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Weaknesses Major weaknesses in the engineering service outsourcing sector in India include poor infrastructure development, lack of domain expertise among workers or companies, lack of initiatives taken on the R&D front and poor regulatory support. Infrastructure and domain expertise While India produces a large number of engineering graduates each year, the number of candidates possessing the required skill sets is not increasing at par with the demand in the engineering outsourcing sector. India also needs to strengthen its engineering and physical infrastructure to cope with the demands of the industry. Infrastructure development in other lowcost countries such as China, Thailand, Malaysia, Mexico and Brazil is far ahead
of that in India. To stay competitive, India needs to make huge investments in infrastructure, which will give a boost to the outsourcing industry. Lack of impetus in R&D Indian OEMs need to gear up their research and development activities. The Boston Consulting Group found that R&D centres of Indian automotive manufacturers are not utilising their full potential and have less operational autonomy compared to their counterparts in the West. The R&D staff in a typical automotive company in India comprises about 3 per cent of its total workforce. According to Priyadarshi Thakur, Secretary, Ministry of Heavy Industries & Public Enterprises, Government of India, R&D expenditure
in the Indian automotive industry is below the global norms and averages. Regulatory support The Indian automotive engineering outsourcing sector lacks full-fledged governmental support notes Vikas Sehgal, Principal and Director, India business at Booz Allen Hamilton. Though engineering services are critical to the growth and development of the automotive sector, the Indian government has done little in terms of formulating policies to attract outsourced work to India. In contrast, the Chinese government offers an array of incentives and is implementing aggressive policies to vantage engineering offshoring opportunities.
Opportunities At present, the Indian engineering outsourcing market has many opportunities. These include growth potential for Indian service providers in the global scenario, creating a privileged position for India as preferred outsourcing destination, and scope for Indian service providers to develop as global players. Growth potential Global spending on engineering service outsourcing is on the rise and accounts for approximately 2 per cent of global GDP, as reported by Booz Allen Hamilton. M. K. Padmanabhan, President and co-founder of Plexion Technologies (India) Pvt. Ltd observes that the global engineering outsourcing market was valued at US$ 7 billion in December 2007, and the automotive market accounted for 68 per cent of this market. In 2007, 20 per cent of these engineering services were outsourced to low-cost destinations and this per centage is projected to increase to 50 per cent by 2010.
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Privileged position of India A survey conducted by A.T. Kearney regarding the preferred destination of American automotive executives for engineering outsourcing found that they ranked India well above China, Mexico and Brazil. The survey also revealed that 39 per cent of the respondents preferred India for engineering and technical service (including engineering and design) outsourcing which was valued at approximately US$ 2 billion in May 2007. A.T. Kearney survey (May 2007) Preferred engineering outsourcing destination by US companies Country
Respondents (%)
India
24
China
15
Mexico
12
Brazil
10
Developmental scope In order to upgrade the quality of services offered, Indian companies operating in the outsourcing domain can gain access to the latest technologies, develop prototyping skills and testing facilities by collaborating with global OEMs. While other countries offering outsourcing services capitalise on low-value and high-volume services, Indian service providers can capture the high-value and low-volume segment. Considering the pace of development in the global automotive industry, the activities that are considered core to the OEM manufacturer now, will become non-core in the next five years. Thus, Indian services providers can initially sign up contracts with global OEMs to provide low-end services for their core operations (such as design and development services for new and legacy products) and gradually take on full responsibility for those activities as they become noncore to the OEM.
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threats Threats to the Indian engineering service outsourcing industry include rising wage levels, competition from other developing economies, competition resulting from market concentration, information safety issues, and decreasing value of the dollar. Rising wage levels Wages for highly skilled workers in India are rising as the economy develops. This is reducing the gap between the wages paid to professionals in developed economies and those in India, which can severely curb the economic advantage that India has as a low-cost outsourcing destination. Competition from other economies India faces stiff competition from developing economies such as China and Malaysia. The automotive market in China is growing at a faster pace than in India. Hence, Chinese automakers are expected to pose stiff competition to their Indian counterparts in the struggle to capture greater share of the automotive engineering outsourcing market. However, A.T. Kearney reports that issues such as intellectual property piracy and political red tape can negatively impact the image of The road ahead
Automotive product lifecycles are getting shorter worldwide due to which automotive manufacturers are under pressure to launch new models at shorter time intervals while curbing development costs. As a consequence, in future more of automotive designing work is expected to be outsourced to low-cost destinations like India. The automotive design and engineering outsourcing market in India is expected to witness a double-digit growth. ValueNotes reported in July 2006 that the outsourcing market is projected to grow at an annual rate of 30 per cent for the next three years. OEMs would prefer to outsource the entire process that ranges from design to engineering to a single company, rather than outsource each operation to a separate service provider. To this purpose, it is
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China as a reliable service provider. Malaysia is fast emerging as a serious contender against India and China in the outsourcing domain. Political stability, strong governmental support and infrastructure development in Malaysia is better than it is in India or China. The Malaysian government is striving to position the country as the hub for technology and services innovation; this has caught the eye of multinational organisations willing to outsource their operations to reliable but low-cost destinations. Competition resulting from market concentration Considering the immense potential in the engineering service outsourcing market in India, many foreign design / CAD service providers are setting their foothold. Global OEMs are also expanding their R&D operations to low-cost destinations, which will result in market concentration and increased competition. Information safety issues Few European OEM manufacturers feel threatened that if outsourced, their product designs would be copied by other manufacturers. In order to convince global OEMs regarding their intellectual important that Indian OEMs enhance their capability to offer end-to-end services. As the Indian outsourcing market expands, companies offering specialised services would be the main target for mergers and acquisitions. Bigger companies would target them for acquiring their capabilities and to access their client base. At present, global automotive manufacturers leverage electronics to provide an array of in-car interactive services to customers, to distinguish their offerings from that of competitors and win customer loyalty. The use of electronics in cars is increasing day by day, which in turn makes the automotive designing and production process more complex. To differentiate itself from other lowcost destinations such as China -which also undertake automotive component designing work at lower costs - Indian companies need to gain in domain knowledge and move up the value chain
property security, Indian service providers can sign non-disclosure agreements or proprietary information agreements with the client. Indian companies can take safety measures like developing client-approved firewalls to restrict access to critical product information. Rising value of the rupee CIO reports that while the rise in the value of rupee against the dollar is a sign of prosperity for the Indian economy, it is considered a setback for the outsourcing industry in India. For example, the value of one US dollar on October 1, 2007 was Rs. 39.65, which is 10 per cent lesser than its value a year ago. Since, all the outsourcing service transactions are made in dollars, a rise in the value of the Rupee against the Dollar can severely hamper profit margins. This is particularly detrimental to the engineering service outsourcing in automotive sector which is still in the nascent stage. To cope with this situation, Indian companies such as Wipro, Satyam and Infosys are passing on the burden of the rising value of the rupee to the customer even as smaller companies continue to be adversely affected. faster to offer a whole range of services. In order to capture larger segment of the global engineering outsourcing market, India needs to increase awareness at the global level of Indian engineering expertise. Developing a separate trade organisation can add impetus for promoting engineering service outsourcing to India. For example, in 2005, NASSCOM formed an engineering service forum with 15 member companies and also conducted road shows to promote engineering service outsourcing. The main idea was to provide engineering service outsourcing a separate identity within the BPO sector. All the stakeholders including government, academic institutions, service providers and trade bodies such as Nasscom need to chalk out a strategy to develop a strong ‘Engineered in India’ brand by investing in infrastructure, workforce and expertise.
prod u ction and man u fact u ring
Capturing CO2
Need for innovative technologies
There is an urgent need to develop an innovative technology for combined power generation and carbon dioxide sequestration from hydrocarbon fuels to address the increasing CO2 emissions coming from the transportation sector.
Andrei G Fedorov Associate Professor George W Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering Georgia Institute of Technology, USA
T
he development of sustainable solutions for our future energy needs has gained priority as evidence for anthropologically-induced climate change continues to mount. While most of the CO2 capture efforts are focussed on large-scale point sources of emissions, roughly one-third of global CO2 emissions come from the transportation sector. Thus, there is an urgent need to address this critical challenge by developing an innovative technology for combined power generation and carbon dioxide sequestration from hydrocarbon fuels, which is energy efficient, technologically simple and robust, and suitable for deployment in the transportation sector. Hydrogen provides an ultimate fuel for any vehicle power plant, be it a hydrogen-fed internal
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In the near to mid future, CO2 could be captured onboard, collected through the current refueling stations and delivered to a centralised / sequestration site.
combustion engine or a fuel cell, because of its high energy density (per molecule) and environmentally benign reaction products (water). However, the transportation sector needs a high volume density (liquid) energy carrier similar to gasoline that can be efficiently stored, transported and conveniently loaded onboard the vehicle. Thus, the liquid fuels, synthetic or naturally occurring, need to be processed onboard to produce hydrogen for use in the power plant, while simultaneously capturing CO2, rather than emitting it to the atmosphere, with subsequent storage and Considering the current technologies used in automotive engines by various car manufacturers, how compatible can the technology to capture CO2 emissions be? There are various approaches and technologies that can be successfully adopted for CO2 capture onboard the vehicle depending on size/power, driving range and utility of a specific vehicle. Arguably, the easiest from the technical
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sequestration in a centralised location. In such a system, the existing liquid fuel distribution infrastructure would still be used, which makes it an economically plausible solution for the near-term as well as potentially an enabling scheme for the long-term sustainable energy future. The immediate challenge then lies in invention and development of novel technologies for efficient hydrogen production with synergistic CO2 capture from synthetic (or natural) hydrocarbon fuels for portable / distributed power plants.
perspective and economically most feasible is fuel de-carbonisation in a catalytic reformer with steam, resulting in high purity hydrogen to be used in the IC engine or a fuel cell (in the future) and highly enriched stream of CO2. This CO2-rich stream can be liquefied into a dense form suitable for onboard storage at the moderately high pressures and near room temperature by using, for example, multi-stage vapour
compression refrigeration (VCR) with minimal energetic penalty. The VCR technology is mature, reliable and cheap, and is already in use on most vehicles (e.g. as part of the air conditioning unit). Do the technologies for capturing CO2 emissions restrict the type of fuel used in automotives? If so, how can automotive manufacturers deal with such limitations?
prod u ction and man u fact u ring
In general, any high density carbohydrate fuel, including conventional petrol, diesel and biofuels, is amenable to de-carbonisation and onboard CO2 capture. However, synthetic fuels with low carbon content (e.g. methanol) are more advantageous from the CO2capture perspective, and are also easier to catalytically reform at lower temperatures and with minimal poisoning of the catalyst. What impact do these technologies have on automotive design, engine performance, price, mileage etc? Adding CO2 capture technology would definitely require additional equipment put under the hood of the vehicle, whose operation will have to be integrated with other engine functions. This will incrementally add to the price of the engine. This additional capture equipment is not expected to be bulky as compared to the engine itself and should scale well with the engine power. This suggests that significant changes to the automotive design may not be needed to accommodate the CO2 capture onboard of the vehicle. For example, because of the similarity of densities of the liquid carbohydrates and of the compressed, liquefied CO2, very little, if at all, additional storage room will need to be added to the vehicle as the fuel tank, which will be emptied upon fuel consumption, may be used for storing the captured CO2. Interestingly, although seemingly counter-intuitive, adding the CO2 capture may not become a burden on the engine, but can actually help improve its performance (energy conversion efficiency) and mileage. This is because the onboard-integrated CO2 captures enable regenerative processing of the fuel with minimisation or complete elimination of any residual fuel losses due to incomplete chemical reactions. This result is illustrated as an example in our recent paper “Conceptual study of distributed CO2 capture and the sustainable carbon economy” published by the Journal of Energy Conversion and Management.
Are automotive manufacturers researching on incorporating the technology to capture CO2 in future vehicles? If so, can you mention a few illustrations? I am not aware of any car makers who are actively pursuing incorporation of CO2 capture onboard the vehicle. Toyota Motors expressed interest in such development, but I am not sure what the current status is and how serious these efforts are. How will the implementation of the technology for capturing CO2 emissions impact automotive engine manufacturers and the aftermarket? Implementation of CO2 capture technology will probably push the engine manufacturers towards development of the hydrogen-fuelled power generation, be it the hydrogen-charged IC engine in the near term (e.g. BMW vehicles) or fuel cells further down the road, as fuel de-carbonisation will produce a stream of high purity “green” hydrogen fuel. In addition, the engine manufacturers will have to develop an in-house expertise or partner with chemical processing equipment companies to design the catalytic reactors for onboard fuel reformation and CO2 separation. Finally, incorporation of suitable refrigeration/liquefaction technologies for CO2 storage in a high volumetric density, liquid state will be required. For the aftermarket, there will be a challenge of retrofitting the existing vehicles by adding an equipment for fuel de-carbonisation and CO2 capture and storage. This may present some significant technical challenges and impose cost burden on customers. Are there any research and development projects under progress for the implementation of technologies for capturing CO2 emissions? If so, please mention a few projects? The fuel reformer for de-carbonisation will be a stand-alone, add-on unit to the engine, and various designs developed
over the years can be adopted. Among the most exciting recent innovations is a so-called CHAMP (CO2/H2 Active Membrane Piston) reactor, which offers a highly scalable (for different power loads) solution for transportation applications by exploiting unique advantages of the piston-in-cylinder design of a typical IC engine. The CHAMP reactor, invented at the Georgia Institute of Technology (Atlanta, USA) and whose embodiments are described in the US Patent Application #11/708,772, is not only a very efficient catalytic reaction device, but also well suited for transportation application by offering very fast transient control of the reaction processes, matching any changes in the engine power requirements. This motivates accelerated design, development, and commercialisation of CHAMP technology. What initiatives are required to make more automotive manufacturers embrace this technology? A remarkable change in the market conditions in the last 1-2 years with a dramatic rise of interest in “green” technology, including significant venture funding for development of such technologies may become a strong force which will motivate the automakers to seriously consider the CHAMP and other de-carbonisation technologies for implementation on the next generation vehicles. In addition, it is expected that very stringent government regulations on carbon emission may be invoked in different parts of the world in the next 3-5 years, for example in California, which would in effect force all automakers to embrace onboard CO2 capture / management technologies if they would like to sell their products. Interview conducted by Omer Ahmed Siddiqui, Assistant Editor, Auto Focus Asia.
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Nanotechnology
Nanomaterials for energy storage and conversion Nanomaterials are increasingly playing an active role by either increasing the efficiency of the energy storage and conversion processes or by improving device design and performance.
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rogress in the area of nanoscience and nanotechnology has pervaded almost all areas of science and technology. Over last couple of decades the ability to manipulate and control materials at an atomic and molecular level (nanometer range) and subsequent understanding of the fundamental processes at nanoscale have led to new avenues. The knowledge thus acquired can be translated into innovative processes, leading to design or fabrication of better products. More importantly, new scientific phenomenon and processes have emerged that could provide either revolutionary or novel solutions to the energy, environmental, and sustainable mobility challenges that will face humanity in the 21st century. With demand for clean and sustainable energy sources increasing at an exponential rate, new material technologies are being explored that could provide cost-effective and environmentally clean solutions to the world’s energy problems. Developments in the areas of alternative fuels or energy storage technologies like advanced batteries, fuel cells, ultra capacitors and biofuels are emerging as strong contenders to petroleum-based sources. Energy derivable from clean and renewable sources like solar and wind power have tremendous potential, but
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the practical use of these sources of energy requires efficient electrical energy storage (EES) technologies that can provide uninterrupted power on demand. In all of these new technologies, nanomaterials are increasingly playing an active role by either increasing the efficiency of the energy storage and conversion processes or by improving device design and performance. Figure 1 shows some of the applications which are using nanostructured materials as the “building block” for the next generation of technologies. In most cases, however, the use of nanoscale materials is a logical extension of the current technology.
Jagjit Nanda Technical Expert, Materials and Nanotechnology Department Research and Advanced Engineering Ford Motor Company USA
The primary components of EES systems constitute chemical (batteries) and capacitive storage. Although electrochemistry is the main guiding principle behind both the technologies, there exists one basic fundamental difference. In the case of chemical storage, the reactants are stored in the cell to produce electricity whereas in capacitive storage, it is charge that is stored across the double layer. With regard to EES materials, perhaps the most visible application of nanomaterials is in the area of super capacitors and fuel cells. Developments in nanostructured carbon materials have optimised super capacitor performance by
What is a nanomaterial? Materials that are made from or that incorporate particles having diameters on the order of 1-100 nanometers (10-9 m) are generally referred to as nanomaterials or nanostructured materials. At such sizes the material physical and chemical properties depend sensitively on the particle diameter. For example, a 2 nanometer (nm) cadmium selenide (CdSe) nanoparticle emits blue light, while a corresponding 6nm CdSe particle emits red light. Interestingly, bulk CdSe is grey in color. This change in optical emission energy results from the “quantum confinement effect”, which physically corresponds to a change in the particle band gap as its diameter approaches a length scale comparable to the spatial extent of the electron cloud. Such ‘quantum dots’ have already found practical applications in nanotransistors and nanolasers. Another interesting property of nanoparticles is their enormous surface area to volume ratio area, which essentially means that there are more atoms on the surface than in the particle interior. As alluded to earlier, the large nanoparticle surface area has been used to reduce the amount of catalyst required in fuel cells.
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increasing the surface area (thus increasing capacitance) while also allowing for a pore size distribution that permits better electrolyte accessibility and hence increased power delivery capability. Reducing the use of precious metal catalysts without significantly compromising the activity or performance is one of the key challenges in the area of fuel cell research. Developments in nanocatalyst materials have shown promising results in minimising the precious metals thereby reducing the cost. For example, nanocarbon supports like nanofibers, aerogels and mesoporus carbon have been used in polymer-electrolyte membrane fuel cells (PEMFC) and have allowed for a significant reduction in the amount of platinum catalyst (less than 0.5 mg/cm2 ) without compromising with the cell performance. Nanomaterials for batteries
In order to meet the need for vehicles with improved fuel economy, many automotive companies now offer gaselectric hybrids (HEVs) that utilise large batteries (> 1kWh) to store energy recovered from braking events. There is also much interest in the development of plug-in-hybrids (PHEVs), which have large batteries (> 5kWh) that can be recharged from the power grid. Although current HEVs use batteries based on nickel-metal hydride (NiMH) chemistry, there is much interest in replacing them with lithium-ion batteries because of their larger gravimetric and volumetric energy density. Realising the potential of this technology in making PHEVs and HEVs a reality, there has been tremendous efforts in industry, governmental agencies, and academia to accelerate the development of lithium-ion battery. The offices of the Freedom Car of the DOE in association with United States Automotive Battery Consortium (USABC) have mandated specifications and requirements, both in terms of performance and cost for lithium-ion cell technology.
Applications of nanostructured materials
Nanostructured Materials
Energy Storage and Conversion
Composiles Catalysts
Thermal Management
Electronics and Sensors
Photovoltaics Batteries Capacitors Fuel Cells
Figure 1
From materials point of view, significant improvements in the areas of lithium-ion battery cathodes, anodes, electrolytes, and separators are needed in order to meet the required energy density, rate capability and the operating temperature range. It is expected that the use of nanomaterial-based anodes and cathodes will be required to meet the requirements of the batteries used in the next generation HEVs and PHEVs. The high-capacity and highrate cathode materials in use today have secondary particle sizes in the range of 5-15 microns, which comprise primary particles having diameters in the range of tens to hundreds of nanometers. From the perspective of lithium-ion transport, nanostructured materials offer a shorter path length for lithium-ion diffusion compared to micron or sub millimeter-sized particles and hence offer better capacity utilisation and discharge / charge rates. Under a simplistic assumption, the characteristic time constant for diffusion is given by t = L2/D, where L is the diffusion length and D is the diffusion coefficient. Therefore, the time for intercalation varies as square of the length scale and should be faster for smaller particle domains. The increased surface area allows the electrolyte to surround individual
particles for better accessibility of the electro-active material. It is worth mentioning that the increase in surface area however, could be a potential impediment for the cell performance and life as it could accelerate unwanted reduction-oxidation chemistry that occurs on the electrode material surface. Interestingly, to alleviate this problem researchers have found another nanotechnology-based solution that involves chemically coating the particle surface with a few-nanometer-thick layer of amorphous carbon or other suitable inorganic material. The presence of such a film avoids the surface chemistry as well as increases the intrinsic conductivity of the particle without affecting the transport of lithium-ions into and out of the core of the particle. Therefore, it is becoming increasingly evident that at a materials level going over to the nanometer-sized particle is particularly advantageous. Another fundamental challenge is developing electrode materials that have both a large ionic and electronic conductivity, which are requirements for maximising the ability to quickly discharge and recharge the battery. Towards this end, there have been significant advances made in the areas of nanocoating processes, design of porous nanostructured electrodes,
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nanowire-based electrode synthesis methods, and the incorporation of carbon nanotube and nanostructures in electrode materials which are beginning to make the transition from the laboratory to manufacturing scales that will be required for commercial products. There are some more fundamental changes that occur at small particles sizes as reported recently in literature, the most noticeable among them are, (a) the chemical potential for Li+ and electrons could be altered compared to their bulk value affecting the reaction thermodynamics, (b) extended solid-solution composition can exist for nanoparticle compared to bulk materials and (c) the ability of nanostructured electrodes to withstand more mechanical stress / strain upon lithium insertion. Promising nanomaterials for Li-ion battery technology
As mentioned earlier, the major limitation in rate capabilities of Li-ion batteries arises on account of the slow solid-sate diffusion of Li+ within the electrode materials. In this case, going over to nanostructured design of electrodes is particularly appealing because in this case the distance the Li+ diffusion is limited to the diameter of the nanoparticle. Recent advances in nanostructured tin (Sn), silicon (Si), nickel (Ni), cobalt (Co), and intermetallic alloys (Cu6Sn5, InSb, Cu2Sb) as replacements for carbon-based anodes have resulted in batteries with higher specific capacity and enhanced cycle life. Anodes made from nanostructured lithium titanate (Li4Ti5O12) are another promising replacement for the carbon anode. Specifically, they enable a very high rate capability and do not suffer strain upon lithium intercalation. Also, unlike carbon anodes, no surface electrolyte interface (SEI) layer is formed on this material. Disruption of this layer in conventional lithium-ion batteries is a primary source of capacity and power fade.
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Company
Product
Application
A123 Systems
Doped nanophosphates
Cathode for Li-ion Batteries for HEV application
Enerdel
Managanese Spinel(LiMn2O4) Lithium Titanate (Li4Ti5O12)
Li-ion HEV battery
Altair Nanotechnologies Inc.
Nano Lithium Titanate
Anode for high power Li-ion batteries Superior safey and abuse tolerant features
Sony
“Nexelion� Alloyed metal modes
High capacity anodes
Toshiba
Nanostructured battery materials Composition unknown
high rate and depth of discharge (DOD) electrodes for Li-ion batteries
Valence
Saphion Li-ion technology Lithium Iron Phosphate
Cathodes for HEV
LG Chem
Lithium polymer batteries
HEV
One drawback of lithium titanate anodes is their higher potential relative to carbon anodes, which has the effect of reducing battery specific energy. With respect to the cathode (the positive electrode), one of the most successful applications of nanomaterials has been the recent commercialisation of batteries based on lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO4). This cathode consists of nanometer-sized, amorphous-carbon-coated LiFePO4 particles that yield exceptional rate capability and stability. The presence of the carbon nanolayer is critical for improving the electrical conductivity as well as facilitating the transport of lithium-ions into and out of the LiFePO4 domains. This approach has also been extended recently to other high capacity layered cathode materials like LiMnPO4. Other potential electroactive nanoscale materials (for lithium storage) that are in the early stages of development but which show some promise include V2O5, MnO2, Co3O4 and CuV2O6. Other exploratory research directions attempt to exploit the shape, morphology, and assembly of nanoparticles to enhance both specific capacity as well as rate. Recently, Chan and co-workers demonstrated a silicon-nanowire-based anode with a capacity close to the theoretical limit of 4200mAh/g. Another example of a development that could increase the volume fraction of electroactive material (and
hence increase battery-specific energy) is replacing the relatively large amount of carbonaceous materials normally added to the cathode (~ 6wt per cent) with a small amount of carbon nanotubes (~ 0.1wt per cent). Commercialisation of nanomaterials
Over the last few years developments in low cost and scalable nanomaterials synthesis and manufacturing methods have resulted in mass-scale production of a limited number of electrode materials that can potentially meet the production volumes required for automotive applications. Table 1 summarises some of the recent successes in the area of nanostructured electrode materials for HEV and PHEV battery applications. This is however, by no means a comprehensive list of all the nanoscale battery materials, but gives a flavour of the range of nanomaterials that are already beginning to enter the product landscape for automotive applications. Several automotive OEMs have announced plans to introduce vehicles that use lithium- battery technology. Notable among them is the recent announcement by Mercedes-Benz to introduce Lithium-ion batteries in their upcoming S-class hybrids, which are scheduled to be in the marketplace by mid-2009. Their Li-ion battery packs
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Conclusion
It is clear that nanotechnology is a key enabler for the success of next-generation battery chemistries for developing high energy and power cells for automotive HEV and PHEV applications. It may be useful to view this specific discipline more as a processbased technology that is redefining the entire product landscape enabling smaller and more efficient batteries.
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are being developed in partnership with Johnson Controls-SAFT. GM has already announced last year of its intention to use Lithium-ion batteries for their Chevrolet Volt PHEV. GM is partnering with Hitachi for its next generation hybrids, which are scheduled for production in 2012. LG-Chem will begin supplying lithium-polymer rechargeable batteries for Hyundai hybrid vehicles, which will be introduced in the marketplace in the 2009 timeframe. Other companies are following the trend to switch over from Ni-MH to Li-ion batteries for their HEVs. These developments will lead to further efforts to scale-up the manufacturing processes for Li-ion batteries (for automotive use) and will have a significant impact on reducing their cost and spearhead the research activity in the area of basic energy storage.
In addition to superior performance, in order to be considered successful for automotive applications, the battery technology must meet cost and all vehicle operating and life requirements. If nanotechnology for automotive energy storage applications is to be viewed as something more than just hype, it must be able to satisfy all these demanding performance, manufacturing, and cost goals.
Jagjit Nanda is currently working as a member technical staff at Research and Advanced Engineering unit (formerly known as Ford Research Laboratory) Ford Motor Co. Dr. Nanda obtained his Masters in Physics form Jadavapur University Kolkata in 1993, followed by PhD in Solid State Chemistry from Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore in 2000. After a 2 year post-doctoral work at Stanford University, Dr. Nanda was a research member of the soft-matter nanotechnology and advanced spectroscopy team at Los Alamos National Laboratory from 2002-2005. His current research interest is in the area of electrochemical energy storage and application.
Automotive Events June 2008 June 3-4, 2008 Mathworks Automotive Conference 08 Venue : Stuttgart, Germany Organiser : The Mathworks Web Link : http://www.mathworks.com June 18–20, 2008 Global Chassis Control Venue : Fleming’s Hotel Frankfurt an der Neuen Börse, Frankfurt am Main, Germany Organiser : IQPC Web Link : http://www.iqpc.com June 19-22, 2008 Automotive Manufacturing 08 Venue : Bitech, Bangkok, Thailand Organiser : Reed Tradex Web Link : http://www.automanexpo.com June 23–25, 2008 Automotive Connectivity Venue : Relexa Hotel Stuttgarter Hof Berlin, Germany Organiser : IQPC Web Link : http://www.iqpc.com
June 23-25, 2008 3rd Annual Innovations in Automotive Seating Venue : Hyatt Regency Dearborn Hotel Dearborn, MI Organiser : IQPC Web Link : http://www.iqpc.com
July 2008 July 7-9, 2008 Bio-fuels: Specifications and Performance Symposium Venue : Paris, France Organiser : SAE International Web Link : http://www.sae.org July 8-9, 2008 Tribology 2008: Surface Engineering of Automotive Powertrains for Environmentally Transport Venue : London, UK Organiser : Institution of Mechanical Engineers Web Link : http://www.imeche.org
August 2008 August 11-15, 2008 Management Briefing Seminars Venue : Michigan, USA Organiser : Center for Automotive Research Web Link : http://mbs.cargroup.org
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Remote Scanner Welding
Using latest laser technologies Thomas Schwoerer Product and Application Manager Sales and Marketing Department Trumpf Laser GmbH + Co. KG Germany
High-power solid-state laser (YAG lasers) took a quantum leap during the last few years providing higher available laser powers, better beam quality, improved electrical efficiency and reductions in price leading to a new, highly productive welding technique called “Remote Welding”.
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or about two decades, conventional laser welding with solidstate lasers, i.e. YAG lasers, has made its way to become an established and reliable process for many production industries. One of the main drivers for laser applications has been the automotive industry. Examples are car body and frame manufacturing, engines and powertrain, seat production and many other parts which have been seeing an increased amount of laser technology for
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both laser cutting and – more importantly – laser welding. Due to the flexibility regarding installation of solid-state lasers featuring beam sharing and flexible laser light cables for transporting the beam to the work piece, solid-state lasers can be ideally used in combination with robots. The development of such laser processes started with conventional laser applications where only the robot motion defined the processing geometry. In a next step, the robot
motion was combined with the motion of highly-dynamic optical scanner system. This combination of technologies allows to utilise synergies of the flexibility of 3D robot processing and highest productivity from the dynamics of laser scanner optics. Robotic laser scanner welding advanced to become the benchmark for efficient and economic high volume production. As a result, productivity compared to conventional welding technologies is several times higher. Disk Laser Technology
During the last years, solid-state laser technology has evolved from lamppumped rod systems to diode-pumped rod systems first, to diodepumped disk and then to fiber laser systems. This allowed a quantum leap regarding efficiency and beam quality. The main reason for such improvements is the use of semiconductor diodes for pumping the laser crystal, emitting only one wavelength of light
Temparature
Temparature
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Radius
Radius
Figure 1
which is best absorbed by the crystal. Optical-optical efficiencies for such systems reach approximately 65 per cent for Disk Lasers today, enabling an overall “wallplug” efficiency of up to 30 per cent , improving by about ten times compared to lamppumping. Another main advantage of Disk Lasers lies in the design of the laser-active crystal itself. For rod systems the thermal impact of the pumping light causes thermal lensing effects which limit the achievable beam quality. New Disk Lasers are designed such that the temperature inside the crystal (a “disk”, therefore the name Disk Laser) remains constant across its surface. Figure 1 illustrates the difference between the two types. Hence, the beam quality achievable with Disk Lasers can be much higher than that of a rod system, improving the Beam Parameter Product (BPP) up to 6 times. Due to improvements in the area of semiconductor pumping diodes the potential of Disk Lasers is not exhausted. While the first generation “only” extracted 1kW of laser power out of one disk, today’s generation already generates 2kW out of one disk crystal. Still, the potential for this technology is not limited and expected to increase to 4kW per disk towards the end of
2008. Further, by combining several individual disk cavities, as illustrated in Figure 2, the total available laser power of a Disk Laser is virtually unlimited. ����������� The pumping beam from diode pumping stacks is reflected multi-fold via mirrors inside the cavity to pass up to 20 times through the disk. The disk “converts” the optical pumping light into a laser beam for processing. Based on an existing 4-cavity design, a laser power of 16kW will soon be available. The beauty of this Disk Laser principle over the fiber laser principle is that there are n��o losses in beam quality when scaling up
laser power. These improvements in beam quality and power also lead to significant advantages for the design of processing optics and allowed the development of high-power scanner optics. It is hardly necessary to mention that indispensable features known from conventional lamp-pumped lasers have not changed: Disk Lasers offer closed-loop power control, are insensitive against back reflections returning from the workpiece, their availability (uptime) is greater than 99 per cent and due to their modular construction all components can be replaced and maintained in the field. Last, but not least, for users of Disk Laser this means that not only the performance of such devices improves, but prices for say a 4 kW Disk Laser are falling because less cavities are required to generate the same laser power. Hence, technology advancements will continue to enhance competitiveness over alternative welding technologies. Remote Welding Optics
The improved beam quality of Disk Lasers allows the design of new optical processing heads with longer focus distances - without sacrifices of processing speed or focus spot size. For example, the 3-times better beam
Pumping Beam
Bending mirror Parabolic mirror
End mirror Disk TRUMPF
Cavity
Output Couplet
Laser Beam
Figure 2 - �������������������������������� Principle of a Disk Laser cavity
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TRUMPF
The construction of the Programmable Focusing Optics PFO 3D is such that all axes can position the beam in 3 dimensions at highest speed. All axes can reposition the beam in less than 30 milliseconds from one end to the other end. Coordinated motion between the axes allows the processing of any weld patterns, e.g. lines, circle, brackets, etc. “Welding-on-the-fly”
Figure 3 - ����������������������������������� Principle of Programmable Focusing Optics PFO 3D. The two galvanometer drives position the beam in X and Y direction, while the movement of a lens is positioning the beam in Z direction.
quality of a 4kW Disk Laser (8 mm*mrad) over an 4kW lampedpumped laser allows a 3-times longer focusing length – while maintaining a focus spot diameter of about 0.6 mm, which still is the typical size for deep penetration welding. Hence, new welding optics can use focus lengths of 0.5m and more, and therefore classified as “Remote Welding”. In turn, larger working distances reduce contamination of such optics significantly and prolong the lifetime of the protection glass, hence contributing to reducing running cost. Further, the emergence of high beam quality lasers allowed to increase the field size of scanner optics, which allow to position the beam via movable mirrors driven by galvanometer motors. Programmability of such scanner optics enables processing of any weld shape within the processing area. Due to the low mass of the mirrors such optics are extremely dynamic and there is virtually no time loss to reposition the beam from one weld to the next. Figure 3 illustrates the principle for a three-dimensional scanner optics.
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TRUMPF’s scanner controller systems can be coupled with a robot motion controller to be fully synchronised with the axes of a robot (Figure 4). This allows extremely fast material processing while the scanner optics is being moved in space by a robot to enlarge the processing space and access the part 3 dimensionally. The technology of coupling two systems enables socalled “processing-on-the-fly”. Today, this is the most productive welding technology available. Due to the very fast “jumping” of the laser beam from weld to weld by means of the scanner optics no time for repositioning the beam is lost. The velocity of the robot path is typically faster than the effective processing speed of the weld process. When physically looking at the process, it is difficult for the human eye to follow the ‘fireworks’. Technical data for a typical Programmable Focusing Optics PFO 3D as already used manifold within the automotive industry worldwide: Focus length : 450mm Working distance : approx. 525mm Dynamics : < 30ms (full stroke) Focus spot size : 600μm Work space dimensions: X axis : 206mm Y axis : 352mm Z axis : 140mm The availability of modern lasers and scanners by itself is only half way to become a widely accepted production tool. Still, such systems have to be handled under rough production con-
ditions by operators. This requires the implementation of further features to account for this. Programmable Focusing Optics display high user friendliness and easy of use by means of several important features: • Real “welding-on-the-fly”: What you see is what you get. No manual calculation of superimposed motion paths • Graphical, CAD-type programming system for offline programming • Teaching on the shop-floor, online • All connections between PFO and Disk Laser are ‘plug & play’. There is no need for adjustments or software re-programming • Automatic program synchronization of scanner programs. This is of high importance in case a scanner ever needs to be replaced due to accidental damage. • Sophisticated health monitoring system of PFO scanner optics • TRUMPF’s Telepresence to remoteaccess all laser and PFO data for diagnosing, troubleshooting and maintenance. This highly powerful tool allows software uploads from a service center all the way to the PFO, without onsite service personal. Remote Welding Applications
The welding performance of a robotic laser scanner system strongly depends on the actual laser power used (available from 1 to 10 kW) and the design of the scanner optics. Generally, the higher the laser power the higher the welding speed, provided all other factors remain constant. Most applications in the automotive area are concerned with welding sheet metal between 0.6mm and 1.5mm thickness. In case of welding two 1mm thick sheets together, Remote Welding with a 4kW TruDisk Laser achieves approximately 100mm/sec effective welding speed. Higher powers behave nearly linear. The real boost in productivity results from time savings to re-position the focus point from one weld to the next.
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bodies. Examples are doors, side panels, rear shelves, seats frames, and other subassemblies of high volume. Figure 6 depicts an example of welding application already used in the industry. How much more productive is Laser Scanner Welding in Practice?
MPF TRU
Figure 4 - ������������������ Welding-on-the-fly
Welding patterns are freely programmable by software. Some welding patterns used are shaped like the letter ‘C’. Depending on the laser power, TruDisk lasers require less than 200 milliseconds to produce one weld, whereas Spot Resistance Welding typically requires two seconds for one weld. Many automotive users around the globe, among them large OEM’s like Daimler, Audi, Volkswagen and various OEM suppliers, already apply this technology for high volume production of various components and car
To illustrate the performance gain of Laser Scanner Welding, let’s look at a comparison between classical Spot Resistance Welding and Laser Scanner Welding based on the example shown in Figure 6. The key advantage is the reduction of cycle time by a factor of approximately three (Table 2). This increase in productivity was achieved with a TruDisk 4002 with 4kW laser power. Such significant improvements have to be aligned and coordinated with material flow inside the plant, therefore more than 4kW of laser power may often not be of further advantage. Experience from various real applications has shown gains in productivity over conventional Spot Resistance Welding! However, to determine the exact increase of any given part various factors come into play: • Size of the part
• Number of welds per part / total weld length • Weld location / distribution across the part • Laser power available • Focus spot size and work space of scanner optics • Synchronised motion “on-the-fly” or “stationary” welding operation • Robot reach Shape, length and distribution of the individual welds may be part specific. Experience has shown that many non-circular laser welds show higher strength than round, circular welds known from Spot Resistance Welding. This is due to better distribution of forces of laser welds, not concentrating in one little spot (Figure 7). High-Strength Steel
Another issue for today’s welding applications is high-strength steel. Yield strengths continue to increase and have already exceeded 1000 MPa. In principal, the higher the strength the higher the sensitivity to heat input. Thanks to the lower heat input of laser applications compared to Spot Resistance Welding and even more compared to MIG-welding, laser beam welding remains a preferred methodology for
TR UM PF
F MP TRU
Figure 5 - ���������������������������� Rapid welding sequence of a Programmable Focusing Optics (PFO 33)
Figure 6 - Welding of body components
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Comparison of technologies Spot Resistance Welding
Laser Scanner Welding
No. of welds
Welds
35
35
Required Equipment
Robots
4
1
Welding tools
5 guns
1 scannet
Part Indetification
1 Mechanical punch
No additional tools required (lase marked)
Cycle time
Sec
~35
~13
Throughput
%
100
270
Conclusion
Table 1
welding high-strength steel. Yet another side effect of reduced heat input is the reduced distortion of the part. Zinc and Laser Dimpling
An important consideration for welding of steel materials is zinc. State-of-the-art steels for automotive body production are typically zinccoated on both sides. Zinc vaporizes at about 900°C when the underlying steel is not even melted. Hence, two layers of zinc enclosed between two pieces of sheet metal generate high vapor pressure when welding. If there is no gap between the sheets this pressure leads to blowouts of molten material, mostly through the top sheet. In effect, the weld may be weakened and leaky. Thus, a gap is required to allow the vapor pressure to laterally escape between the sheets. Although, in principle, there are many possibilities to generate this gap, laser technology may offer the most flexible and
versatile solution. The same equipment used for welding can solve this problem by applying a process called “Laser Dimpling” before the sheets are brought together. This additional process step can be conducted using the saame laser and scanner equipment as for welding later, modifying the typical process steps as follows (Figure 8): 1. Laser Dimpling of one sheet in areas of later welding 2. Loading of top sheet. Dimples maintain constant gap for zinc degassing 3. Laser Scanner Welding Step 1 : Laser Dimling Direction of Travel
Dimples can be produced very cost-efficiently using the same equipment, and with very high repetition rates. A dimple can be produced in about 10 milliseconds. Laser technology today is a widely accepted technology and capitalises on high system flexibility, yet great throughput for high-volume production. Advancements of disk laser sources and scanner optics enable stable and highly-efficient remote laser welding processes. Given the significant advantages in processing time, less equipment is needed in comparison to other welding technologies and hence higher production throughputs can be achieved with less equipment and floor space. This technology has already been successfully introduced in the European automotive industry in high volume car manufacturing and is expected to contribute to cost savings and higher flexibility for body shop applications and tier suppliers, today and in the future.
Step 2 : Loading Top Sheet
Step 3 : Scanner Welding Direction of Travel
Scanner Head
Scanner Head
TRUMPF
Figure 8 - Process sequence for Laser Dimpling Spot Resistance Welding
TRUMPF
Figure 7 - Flow of forces within a weld, comparing Spot Resistance Welding with Laser Stitch Welding.
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Laser Scannet Welding
Thomas Schwörer has held various positions at Trumpf Laser since 1998 in the areas of laser welding and laser cutting. For many years he assumed a project manager position in USA, Germany and Mexico managing the largest industrial laser installations in the automotive industry. Since 2005 he has been managing the Remote Scanner Welding Technology for Disk Lasers.
Classifieds AB Technology (M) Sdn. Bhd is the first Thixomolder® in South-East Asia. Other major services of the company include in-house tooling design, fabrication, post molding processes, cold-chamber die casting, plastic injection molding, metal stamping and electro-mechanical assembly. Leading manufacturers from consumer handheld, telecommunication, consumer electronics, computer, automotive, sporting equipment and medical equipment industries are the valued customers. The company holds ISO 9001: 2000 certification. Lot 11, Kawasan Perindustrian Lukut, 81900 Kota Tinggi, Johor, Malaysia. Ph: +607-882 5018 / 607-883 9766 Fax: +607-882 5013 Contact person: Mr Kevin Pang, E-mail: information@abtech.com.my; http://www.abtech.com.my Cosmos Engineering Company manufactures automotive parts, components and sub-assemblies. Products and services offered by the company include metal parts, spares and their fabrication, forging, machining, processing, designing, production, restructuring with collection of raw materials, inspection and delivery. The company is ISO 9001: 2000 certified and registered with PAAPAM, JICA, EDB, AT&TC, JETRO, SMEDA, EPB, SITE Association of Industry Karachi and Karachi Chamber of Commerce & Industry. D-223/C S.I.T.E, Behind Valika Hospital, Karachi, Pakistan. Ph: +9221-2579161 / 6008780 / 2593112 Fax: +92-21-2579161, Email: cosmos_engg@yahoo.com; www.cosmosengineering.com.pk TKH Manufacturing Sdn Bhd is into manufacturing and assembling automotive parts and products. The company has a well knit supply chain catering to local car assemblers and coachbuilders of both domestic and overseas market. TKH is a subsidiary of Wawasan TKH Holdings Berhad (formerly known as Greatpac Holdings Berhad), which is listed on the Second Board of Bursa Malaysia. No 33 Lorong Jala 14/KS10, Telok Gong, Pelebuhan Klang, Selangor Darul Ehsan, 42000 Malaysia. Ph: 00603 31341168 Fax: 00603 31343379 Email: bjs-auto@wawasantkh.com; www.wawasantkh.com Anand Enterprise produces highly customised automotive parts including centrifugal cylinder liners and sleeves, injector sleeves, connecting rod, engine valves and pistons etc. The company exports to major auto manufacturers worldwide. The company is ISO 9001:2000 certified and is pursuing for TS 16949 accreditation. C-1B/259, Phase-II, R Road, Aji Industrial Estate, GIDC, Rajkot 360 003. (Gujarat) India. Ph: +91 281 2385209, 2389198 Fax: +91 281 2387688 Email: info@anandenterprise.com, mandeep.gyani@ anandenterprise.com; www.anandenterprise.com NSR Rubber Protective Sdn. Bhd is ISO 9001:2000 accredited and produces various types of rubber components for automotive, electronics and general metal bonding parts. Products include mixed rubber; compound to extrusion and precision compression molded parts produced using rheometer, smart scope and profile projector. No.6522, Jalan Ayam Didik 2/1, KWS Perusahaan Ringan Taman Ria Jaya, 08000 Sungai Petani, Kedah. Malaysia. Ph: 604-441 4528 Fax: 604441 4598 E mail: sales.auto@nsr-rubber.com Elec. & others: marketing@ nsr-rubber.com.sales@nsr-rubber.com; www.nsr-rubber.com Bright Formula (M) Sdn. Bhd is ISO 9001: 2000 certified and specializes in metal stamping, metal mould, tool and die making, CNC milling, sub assembly, silk screening, oven printing and products design. It also has expertise in automotive, electrical, electronics, audio video, mechatronics and camera module. No. 19, Lorong Nagasari 2, Taman Nagasari, 13600 Prai, Penang, Malaysia. Ph: 604 398 5122 Fax : 604 398 5069 Email: customer@ brightformula.com; www.brightformula.com
ATA Industrial (M) Sdn Bhd manufactures and deals with plastic injection moulded products and assembled items. ATA provides vertical integration of product design, tooling fabrication, injection moulding, secondary processes and final assembly. The company has achieved ISO 9001: 2000, ISO 14001: 1996 and UL certification. No. 18, Jalan Riang 23, Taman Gembira, 81200 Johor Bahru, Johor, Malaysia. Ph: 60 7 3340911 Fax: 60 7 3345912/3326809 Email: bala@ataind.com.my; www.ataind.com.my T.T.R.W Industries Sdn Bhd is an ISO 9001:2000 certified company manufacturing cylinder liners for diesel engines. The company supplies centrifugally cast liners for tractors, passenger cars, pick-up vans, light and heavy commercial vehicles. Cylinder liners and sleeves are manufactured using permanent moulds and casting procedures ensuring homogenous consistency. Plot 23 & 24, Lorong Kilang 13, Tupai Light Industrial Area, 34000 Taiping, Perak, Malaysia. Ph: +605 - 807 6228 / 805 9228 Fax : +605 - 806 9228, Email : yutrw@tm.net.my; http://ttrw.com.my Aparam Engineers manufactures automobile and industrial bearings under AMB brand. Product line includes deep groove ball bearings, taper roller bearings, needle roller bearings, spherical roller bearings and clutch release bearings. All the products comply with standard dimensions and tolerance as per international standards. 118, New Aashirwad Square, Nr. Sosyo Circle, Udhna Magdalla Road, Surat - 395002, Gujarat, India, Ph: + 91 261 2631113 Mobile: + 919825210715 Fax: +91 261 2631113 Email: bhavesh2231@rediffmail. com, aparam_enggrs@rediffmail.com; www.aparamengineers.com Cuscapi Malayasia Sdn Bhd offers business management solutions for the F&B, retail, hospitality, automotive, financial, telecommunications and public service industries. The company provides extensive consulting experience to develop customer capital resource. The solutions delivered are based on proven methodologies with the use of latest technologies. Level 1, Block B, Peremba Square, Saujana Resort, 40150 Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia, Ph: +603 7623 7777 Fax: +603 7622 1999 Email: jasonthoe@cuscapi.com; www.cuscapi.com J.J. Diesel manufactures and exports engineering products like cylinder liners, valve guide and sleeves, connecting rods, petrol engine spares, diesel engine spares, tractor cylinder liners, marine liners and other automobiles engine spare parts. The company’s products find applications in cars, trucks and tractors. Govind Nagar Road, Kothariya Main Road, Rajkot - 360 002, Gujarat, India. Ph: + 91 281 2384097 Fax: + 91 281 2384029, Email: jjdiesel1@ rediffmail.com; www.indiamart.com/jdproducts JPK (Malaysia) Sdn Bhd is a precision plastic injection moulding company with extensive mould manufacturing, assembly and secondary processing capabilities. The company’s product line includes consumer electronics, telecommunications, automotive, gear technology and lens technology. JPK is an Enterprise 50, ISO/ TS16949, ISO9001 and ISO14001 certified company. 189715-A, Lot 2 Jalan Jangur Dua, 28/43A Seksyen 28, 40000 Shah Alam, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia. Ph: +60 3 5192 2868 Fax: +60 3 5192 2899, Email: info@jpkm.com.my; www.jpkm.com.my GSH Precision Technology manufactures and supplies intermediary solutions and products for the Semi-conductor industry. The company is principally into tooling and manufacturing activities. GSH uses high-tech machines including AGIE wire-cut machine (Progress 2) and Charmilles Robofil 1020 wire cut machine etc. for manufacturing superior quality products. 552690-V, Suite 12-A, Level 12, Menara Northam, No.55, Jalan Sultan Ahmad Shah, 10050 Penang. Ph: 00604 6262608 Fax: 00604 6264268 Email: hgfong3939@yahoo.com admin@gsh.com.my
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Classifieds Sriram Cold Forgings Pvt. Ltd is an ISO 9001 certified company manufacturing stainless steel rivets, stainless steel screws, stainless steel bolts, pressed components, turned components, ferrous components and non ferrous components. The company also specialises in converting turned components to forged components decreasing material consumption and production cost.
Netplast Ltd is the leading manufacturer of automotive parts for OEMs. Products manufactured include injection moulded components, PU molded parts, complete seating systems, head lights, rear view mirrors, bus lights and parts, mascots and logos. The company is ISO: 9002, QS: 9000 and ISO/TS 16949: 2002 certified.
Plot 71 & 72, SIDCO Industrial Estate, Vichoor, Chennai 600 103, India. Ph: +91 044 25024778 / 25024779 Mobile: +91 9841281301 / 9841281300, Email: srcfpl@hotmail.com; www.indiamart.com/sriramcoldforging
2 & 4 Uptron Estate, Panki, Kanpur- 208022, Uttar Pradesh, India. Ph: 0512- 3268122, 3241512 Fax: 0512 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 2691542 Email: netplast@gmail. com netplast@sancharnet.in www.netplast.com
Winner Auto India manufactures cylinder liners and engine sleeves through centrifugal die cast technology. An ISO 9001: 2000 company it provides high quality, durable and reliable cylinder liners and engine sleeves. The company is equipped with foundry, modern machineries and equipments, modern laboratory, quality control department, quick and fast dispatch department to ensure quality production.
P.T. Wahana Kemalaniaga Makmur Wakeni is a professional exhibition and convention organiser. It provides wide exposure in trade fairs relating to medical, health and hospital management; occupational safety and health, plastics and rubber, packaging and printing, wire and cable, fashion and shoes, confectionary, interior and hardware and other areas of industries.
80, Feet Road, Aji Vasahat, Rajkot - 360 003, Gujarat, India. Ph: +91 281 238 7149 / 553 6588 Mobile: +91 98257 15437 Fax: +91 281 238 9021 Email: wai_rjt9991@yahoo.com, info@winnerautoindia.com; www.winnerautoindia.com
Komp Perkantoran graha Kencana , Block CH-CI, JI Raya Pejuangan No. 88 , Jakarta 11530, Indonesia. Ph: +62(0) 21 5325889 Fax: +62(0) 21 5325891 Email: wakeni@cbn.net.id; www.wakeni.com
Anupam Engineering Company manufactures and supplies precision turned components for engineering and automotive industry. Automotive fasteners, industrial fasteners, metal rivets, metal fasteners, screws, bushes, inserts, studs, bolts, nuts, valves, pins, grub screws, threaded bars made of brass, stainless steel and other metals are the product range available.
Teetronics Industrial (M) Sdn. Bhd. supplies products to companies operating in electronics and electrical, machinery, automotive and related industries. The company employs wire harness assembly converting technology for producing wire assembly for automotive, machinery, electrical / electronics, molded parts, wires/cables.
9/10, Shrinath Darshan, S. V. Road, Vile Parle (West) - 400 056, Maharashtra, India. Ph: + 91 22 26715374Fax: + 91 22 28147662 Email: info@anupamengineering.com, sales@anupamengineering.com, anupamengg@mtnl.net.in; www.anupamengineering.com
No. 29, Jalan Selat Selatan 17, Portland Industrial Park, 42000 Port Klang, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia. Ph: +603-31683986 Fax: +603-31662599Email: Sales@teetronics.com; www.teetronics.com
Madras Centrifugal Castings is ISO 9001:2000 certified and manufactures premium C.I. sleeves and automobile cylinder liners, honing sleeves, honing tackles, split sleeves, cast iron sleeves, cam cast blanks and dies. The company conducts stringent quality tests to ensure high quality standards.
Cee Dee Industries manufactures hydraulic fittings, industrial and assembled hoses and interlock hoses. Assembled hoses include hydraulic hoses, metallic hoses, PVC pipes, rigid pipes, fittings and bends. The company is ISO 9001 certified and strives to produce quality products at competitive prices.
#7, Munusamy Street, Vanagaram 3rd Main Road, Athipet, Chennai â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 600 058, Tamil Nadu, India. Ph: +91 44 26532177 Fax: +91 44 2653 0922 Email: madrascc@vsnl.net; www.madrascentrifugalcastings.com
H-30/2, Industrial Area, Govindpura, Bhopal-462023, (M.P.) India. Phone: +91 755 2586853, 5271742 Fax: +91 755 2586892 Email: ceedee@sancharnet.in, mkt@cdindus.com; www.cdindus.com
Suppliers Guide Company
Products & Services Page No.
Cuscapi Communications www.cuscapi.com
OBC3
JEC Composites www.jeccomposites.com
26
PDD Group Ltd. www.pdd.co.uk
43
P.T. Wahana Kemalaniaga Makmur www.wakeni.com
35
Satyam Computers Services Ltd. www.satyam.com
IFC
Company
Page No.
Information Technology Cuscapi Communications
OBC3
Engineering Services Satyam Computers Services Ltd.
IFC1
Materials
1
JEC Composites
26
P.T. Wahana Kemalaniaga Makmur
35
Design and Testing PDD Group Ltd.
43
To receive more information on products & services advertised in this issue, please fill up the "Info Request Form" provided with the magazine and fax it, or fill it online at www.autofocusasia.com by clicking "Request Client Info"link. 1. IFC: Inside Front Cover 2. IBC: Inside Back Cover
96 Au t o F o c u s A s i A
ISSUE - 3
2008
3. OBC: Outside Back cover
97 Au t o F o c u s A s i A
ISSUE - 3
2008
98 Au t o F o c u s A s i A
ISSUE - 3
2008