Endnotes

A smaller contingent of the graduate students in the course (who adhere to Recommendation B in the re- port) believes this counteracts any efforts by the U.S. to be an “honest broker.” Both parties should equally adhere to the ceasefire; if the U.S. issues a particular warning or assurance to only one of the sides, it vio- lates a position of neutrality and hinders negotiation processes.

2 The smaller contingent of graduate students, supporting Recommendation B, believes a reference to the Moroccan autonomy plan delegitimizes the position of the U.S. as an honest broker, and ought to be avoided in negotiations.

3 Bell, Arvid and Tom O’Bryan. “A Puzzle Too Com- plex? James Baker’s Mediation Mission in Western Sahara, 1997-2004.” Harvard University, John F. Ken- nedy School of Government 2019, 3. Theofilopoulou HKS study 3

4 Jensen, Erik, Western Sahara: Anatomy of a Stalemate, 2nd edition. Lienne Rienner, 2011, 6.

5 Jensen, 13.

6 Janis, Mark, “The International Court of Justice: Advisory Opinion on the Western Sahara,” Harvard International Law Journal, 609, 1976, 610 https://pa- pers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1103207.

7 Theofilopoulou HKS study Bell, 4.

8 Theofilopoulou HKS study Bell, 4.

9 Jensen, 14.

10 Zoubir, Yahia, “Stalemate in Western Sahara: Ending International Legality,” Middle East Policy, Vol. XIV, No. 4, Winter 2007. https://www.mepc.org/journal/ stalemate-western-sahara-ending-international-legal- ity

11 Zoubir.

12 Arieff, Alexis, “Western Sahara,” Congressional Re- search Service, RS20962, April 14, 2013. https://fas. org/sgp/crs/row/RS20962.pdf.

13 United Nations. ”Background: MINURSO,” 2017, https://minurso.unmissions.org/background.

14 Zoubir.

15 United Nations Security Council. “Security Council Adopts Resolution 2468 (2019), Authorizing SixMonth Extension of United Nations Mission for Referendum in Western Sahara.” | Meetings Coverage and Press Releases. United Nations, 2019, www. un.org/press/en/2019/sc13795.doc.htm. 16 Arieff, 3.

17 Arieff, 4.

18 Permanent Mission of the Kingdom of Morocco to the United Nations. “Reply of the Kingdom of Mo- rocco to Mr. Baker’s proposal entitled “Peace Plan for the Self-Determination of Western Sahara,” http:// www.mission-maroc.ch/en/pages/253.html.

19 Kingdom of Morocco. “Autonomy Plan: Kingdom on the Move.” http://autonomy-plan.org/the-autono- my-plan-for-sahara.

20 Burns as quoted in Arieff 8.

21 U.S. Department of State, “Remarks With Moroccan Foreign Minister Taieb Fassi Fihri.” March 23, 2011, https://2009-2017.state.gov/secretary/20092013clin- ton/rm/2011/03/158895.html

22 Baker, James. Work Hard, Study ... and Keep Out of Politics! Northwestern University Press; First Edition, June 2, 2008, Memoir 354.

23 Polisario officials insist that the movement never received weapons from the Soviet Union, and that the movement has moderated its formerly Marx- ist-socialist roots. Since 1991, they maintain that the movement’s sole focus has been the liberation of the territory held by Morocco, and the establishment of a democratic nation-state.

24 UNHCR, “Sahrawi Refugees in Tindouf, Algeria: Total In-Camp Population,” http://www.usc.es/ export9/sites/webinstitucional/gl/institutos/ceso/ descargas/UNHCR_Tindouf-Total-In-Camp-Popu- lation_March-2018.pdf

25 United Nations Security Council S/2019/787. https://minurso.unmissions.org/sites/default/files/ sg_report_english.pdf.

26 United Nations Security Council S/2019/787.

27 Arieff, ‘Summary.’

28 Arieff, ‘Summary.’

29 Messari, Nizar, “National security, the political space, and citizenship: the case of Morocco and the Western Sahara,” The Journal of North African Studies, Vol- ume 6, Issue 4, 2001. https://www.tandfonline.com/ doi/abs/10.1080/13629380108718450, 48.

30 Messari, 48.

32 Mundy, Jacob, “Moroccan Settlers in Western Sahara: Colonists or Fifth Column?” The Arab World Geographer, January 2012, Volume 15, Issue 2, 95-126. https://arabworldgeographer.org/doi/pdf/10.5555/ arwg.15.2.mgu34h2j94m7278u, 111.

33 Smith, Jeffrey, “The taking of the Sahara: the role of natural resources in the continuing occupation of Western Sahara,” Global Change, Peace & Security, Volume 27, Issue 3, 2015. https://www.tandfonline. com/doi/abs/10.1080/14781158.2015.1080234, 272.

34 United Nations Security Council. ”Authorizing SixMonth Extension for United Nations Mission for Referendum in Western Sahara.” October 31, 2018, https://www.un.org/press/en/2018/sc13561.doc.htm. “S_res_2440.Pdf.”

35 Messari, 55

36 The report does not in any way endorse or support these characterizations; it simply presents them as articulated by Moroccan officials.

37 The report omits discussion of NEA’s second stra- tegic goal, “Advance Comprehensive and Lasting Arab-Israeli Peace,” as it is not immediately pertinent to the topic at hand.

38 Egypt in the Suez, Turkey in the Bosporus, and the UK/Spain/Morocco in the Strait of Gibraltar.

39 Alexis Arieff., “Morocco: Background and U.S. Rela- tions,” Congressional Research Service, 26 October 2018.

40 Counter-Extremism Project, “Morocco: Extremism & Counter-Extremism,” 26 December 2018, accessed via https://www.counterextremism.com/countries/ morocco#radicalization_and_foreign_fighters.

41 Nathan Sales, “Opening Remarks During the GCTF ‘Threats, Challenges and Resources Related to FTF and Family Repatriation’ Side Event,” 24 September 2019, accessed via https://www.state.gov/openingremarks-during-the-gctf-threats-challenges-and-re- sources-related-to-ftf-and-family-repatriation-sideevent/.

42

43 Ahlam Ben Saga, “How Morocco Deals with Terrorist Returnees, Other Islamic Radicals,” Morocco World News, 14 March 2019, accessed via https://www. moroccoworldnews.com/2019/03/268010/moroc- co-terrorist-returnees-slamic-radicals/.

Arieff, Alexis. “Algeria: In Focus,” Washington, D.C.: Congressional Research Services, February 26, 2019. https://fas.org/sgp/crs/row/IF11116.pdf.

45 Foreign Assistance, “Foreign Assistance in Morocco,” accessed via https://foreignassistance.gov/explore/ country/Morocco, and Millennium Challenge Cor- poration, “Morocco,” accessed via https://www.mcc. gov/where-we-work/country/morocco.

46 Arieff.“U.S. Relations With Morocco.”

47 Arieff. “U.S. Relations With Morocco.”

48 U.S. Department of State. ”Joint Regional Strategy for the Middle East and North Africa.” August 23, 2018, ” https://www.state.gov/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/ JRS-NEA-ME_UNCLASS_508.pdf.

49 List drawn from Zoubir.

50 U.S. Department of State, “Joint Regional Strategy.” JRS-NEA-ME_UNCLASS_508.Pdf. 6.

51

52

53 Oxfam. “The Humanitarian-Development-Peace Nexus: What Does it Mean for Multi-Mandated Organizations?” Oxfam Discussion Paper, 2019.

Benlakehal, Massinissa. “Western Sahara’s New Lead- er: The Struggle Continues,” https://www.alaraby. co.uk/english/comment/2016/7/19/western-saha- ras-new-leader-the-struggle-continues

American Foreign Policy Council, “Morocco,” March 2014, accessed via https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/ wp-content/uploads/2014/03/AFPC_Morocco.pdf.

54 Dario Cristiani, “Al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb Attacks Morocco’s ‘Kingdom of Corruption and Despotism,’” Jamestown Foundation, 13 December 2013, accessed via https://www.refworld.org/do- cid/52aeed444.html.

55 United Nations Security Council S/2019/787.

56 United Nations Security Council S/2019/787.

57 Lecat, Ludivine, “Floods in Sahrawi Refugee Camps in Tindouf: Processes of Mobility and Immobility.” 2016, http://labos.ulg.ac.be/hugo/wp-content/up- loads/sites/38/2017/11/The-State-of-Environmen- tal-Migration-2016-204-228.pdf.

58

59 Embassy of Morocco Australia-New Zealand-Pacific States, “Full Text of the Moroccan Initiative for an Autonomy Plan,” 2007, http://www.moroccoembassy. org.au/?q=full-text-moroccan-initiative-autono- my-plan

MINURSO, “Mandate,” https://minurso.unmissions. org/mandate