Zootecnica International – March 2020 – POSTE ITALIANE Spa – Spedizione in Abbonamento Postale 70%, Firenze
Dynamics and patterns of the egg industry in the Emerging Market Countries between 2007 and 2017 Endogenous enzyme activities and energy utilization of broilers fed sorghum-based diets supplemented with phytase and carbohydrases How do Coccidiosis challenges influence lipid digestibility and energy utilization?
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2020
The new feeders of the «Gió» range, specifically developed for great poultry farms, thanks to the easiness in the regulation of the feed and to the absence of grill (that avoid chicks perching) have many advantages: they are easy to use and their cleaning is extremely easy and fast too, leading to an overall reduction in labour costs.
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EDITORIAL What is and what has been the cultural role of the popularization of scientific theories? Scientific divulgence has been, and it is an important means of breaking the barriers between scientific knowledge and its popularization. Once, the scientist together with his language was considered unreachable in regard to general information. Who wrote and who writes is still in the majority of cases a scientist or at least a specialized technician. However, in recent years the figure of the scientific journalist (though not necessarily a scientist) has become more and more widespread even if his role has not yet assumed a well-defined physiognomy. Nevertheless, it is a fact that in the past years, the number of pages devoted to scientific matter in daily newspapers and the number of specialized scientific magazines has notably increased: we have witnessed a real ‘boom’ in scientific divulgence. The major risk of scientific journalism is to fall into trap of ‘superficialism’, reducing or transforming the news into events of ‘sensationalism’. But, on the other hand, the centralization of influence which science has experienced in the past is, today, absolutely anachronistic. Now that we live in the age of computer and internet, the objectives are quite different. Therefore, in this sense, the role of the specialized press is fundamental – not only from an informative viewpoint but also from a sociological one. We need only to think of the importance given to this type of information in developing countries. Besides significantly renewing the public’s preparation and their maturity in these scientific sectors, this divulgence is also essential to technical development. It is only through information that we can create those constructive dialects which stimulate the evolution and the attainment of continuous improved results. To be a scientific journalist does not mean that we must be concerned only with the results of research. We can also be valid journalists by investigating behind the scenes of research and by attending to the daily activities of scientists, the methods by which scientific theories are elaborated, the difficulties which may arise, and the activities carried out in various sectors. The important role of a technical/scientific magazine should be that of bridging the gap between research and practical application, between science and society. Ultimately, this would result in considering science a human activity, just as many other fields. Science should be a cultural aspect of our times which is mediated by a specialized press both the general public and to ‘field workers’.
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SUMMARY WORLDWIDE NEWS............................................................................. 4 COMPANY NEWS................................................................................... 6 REPORTAGE How can the poultry industry fight global warming while improving its bottom line?........................................................................ 8
FIELD REPORT Potential to produce poultry feed from food wastes......................................... 10
DOSSIER Role of the hatchery in Antibiotic Free (ABF) production ................................. 14
26
FOCUS Genomics and biotechnology in poultry breeding ........................................... 16 Meta-analysis of genetic parameters of feed conversion.................................. 22
MARKETING Dynamics and patterns of the egg industry in the Emerging Market Countries between 2007 and 2017.............................. 26
TECHNICAL COLUMN Increased focus on sustainability: breeding the long-life layer.......................... 32 The importance of deep cleaning in the fight against viruses........................... 34
44
MANAGEMENT Footpad dermatitis in market turkey hens........................................................ 38
NUTRITION Ideal amino acid profile and chicken gut disturbance....................................... 40 Endogenous enzyme activities and energy utilization of broilers fed sorghum-based diets supplemented with phytase and carbohydrases............. 44
VETERINARY SCIENCE How do Coccidiosis challenges influence lipid digestibility and energy utilization?................................................................. 48
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Get the most from your diagnostic laboratory.................................................. 50 Resources and tools to write a good biosecurity plan...................................... 52
PROCESSING Reduction of Salmonella and Campylobacter on raw poultry........................... 56 New method to detect woody breast fillets...................................................... 58
MARKET GUIDE................................................................................... 60 EVENTS................................................................................................... 63 INTERNET GUIDE................................................................................ 64
WORLDWIDE NEWS
Midwest Poultry Federation announces new dates, new space for 2023 and beyond! The Midwest Poultry Federation (MPF) Board of Directors is thrilled to announce its annual convention will officially move upstairs to bigger space at the Minneapolis Convention Center starting in 2023. eas of the show – exhibits, attendees, sponsorships, and hotel rooms utilized. Its 2018 convention was named one of the 50 Fastest Growing Trade Shows by Trade Show Executive Magazine. Future show dates are: • April 11-13, 2023 (Tue-Thurs) • April 17-19, 2024 (Wed-Fri*) *Show days shift in 2024 only • April 8-10, 2025 (Tue-Thurs) • April 14-16, 2026 (Tue-Thurs)
“Our new space will allow MPF a bigger and more flexible footprint,” said MPF President Greg Nelson of Manhattan, Kansas, who represents the Kansas Poultry Association on the board. “This includes more exhibit opportunities, keeping all our exhibits in one hall, and being able to provide a larger variety of education and experiences for attendees.” This change will coincide with a NEW schedule of dates for the MPF Convention - moving to April in 2023. “The decision to move to April was not taken lightly by the MPF Board,” said Nelson. “After much discussion and planning over the past couple of years, the board was unanimous in its decision to changes its dates.”
In the meantime, planning continues for the 2020 MPF Convention, which will be held March 17- 19 in its current space at the Minneapolis Convention. The 2020 show features a NEW education schedule and changes for MPF’s major networking events, its kickoff Welcome Reception and a new night and more casual format for MPF Unhatched: An Evening of Eats and Entertainment. Partnering events include the North Central Avian Disease Conference (March 16-17) and the Organic Egg Farmers of America Symposium (March 17) – both events will be held at the Minneapolis Convention. Details on all MPF Convention events, education program, exhibitors, registration, and hotel reservations are available at: www.midwestpoultry.com. New Contact Info for MPF: MPF has moved so please note a new phone number (763-284-6763) and address (PO Box 265, Buffalo, MN 55313). You may also contact MPF with any questions at info@midwestpoultry.com.
This new opportunity to move upstairs to larger space in April at the Minneapolis Convention Center will allow MPF to maximize the space it needs to successfully grow the convention and provide the highest quality experience for attendees. In the past five years, MPF has seen extraordinary growth in all ar-
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- worldwide news -
WORLDWIDE NEWS
Responsible soy usage in Europe FEFAC, representing the EU compound feed and premix industry carried out its 3rd internal monitoring on the usage of responsible soy for the calendar year 2018. The provisional data indicates FEFAC members used a range of 9-10 Mio tons of responsible soy meeting the criteria of the FEFAC Soy Sourcing Guidelines. This is a significant increase from 2017 with an estimated range of 6–7 Mio tons. Responsible soy is soy provided through supplier and member schemes and programmes that FEFAC and its members consider to be in compliance with the 59 criteria of the FEFAC Soy Sourcing Guidelines, covering good agricultural practice, environmental and social requirements. As of December 2019, 19 schemes have passed the benchmarking process against the Soy Sourcing Guidelines, facilitated by ITC. FEFAC President Nick Major: “I am pleased with the continued positive trend that the European feed sector
and its supply chain partners have been able to display as regards the industry use of responsible soy. I am confident that we will make further progress on the mainstream market transition of responsible soy use from both imported and home-grown origin. In that regard, I also welcome the growing signatory list of over 250 feed companies to the Responsible Soy Declaration.” FEFAC considers the updated monitoring result on responsible soy usage as an important contribution to the EU debate on the protection of world forests, as part of the Green Deal action plan of the European Commission. FEFAC will soon conduct a review of its Soy Sourcing Guidelines to provide a meaningful contribution to current discussions to improve the market transparency on ‘deforestation-free’ soy products used by the European feed industry.
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- march 2020 -
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COMPANY NEWS
Major investments in Hubbard’s Premium R&D to be prepared for the future As global leader in the Premium market segment Hubbard has been involved in the selection and marketing of slower-growing broiler breeds for more than 50 years. To be fully prepared for the future, Hubbard recently invested an additional €8 million in its Premium R&D centre in France. New developments
Major investments Hubbard has always adapted its breeding program to changes in consumption patterns such as increased demand for conformation, meat quality and efficiency without losing focus on robustness and animal welfare. For that, Hubbard intensified the R&D of its Premium Product Range a few years ago, resulting in even more productive and efficient Premium chickens in order to keep the price of Premium meat close enough to conventional products. “On top of this, during the last two years, we have completely refurbished our Premium R&D centre in France. This has been a huge project in which many people and resources have been involved. This major additional investment of €8 million allows us to be even better prepared for the future. This involves implementation of state-of-the-art technologies and equipment, renovation of R&D farms and the pedigree hatchery. The effort profits Hubbard customers by a boost in performance, health and welfare of their broiler breeder lines,”
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says Frédéric Fagnoul, Director R&D for Hubbard.
Increased selection pressure Increased selection pressure results in seeing improvements in the field much faster. With the latest investments made, Hubbard’s Premium R&D is now in line with the selection pressure of its Conventional R&D. To achieve this Hubbard has increased the population size and the number of hatches of each pedigree line in its Premium R&D program. On top this, the accuracy of genetic selection methods has been increased by using the latest technologies and techniques, such as advanced 3D imaging to improve selection for skeletal health, meat yield and quality. Also, new technology is being implemented to observe FCR and feeding behaviour during a bird’s lifetime, in order to select birds that are the most efficient in converting feed to body weight. These additional gains in FCR means that less feed is needed to produce healthy and productive Premium chickens.
- company news -
Hubbard offers a large range of Premium breeder females and males to be able to respond the growing differentiation of the broiler markets. New developments are driven by the ‘Global Animal Partnership’ (GAP) in North America and the ‘European Chicken Commitment’ (ECC) in Europe. “With several new options in our R&D pipeline and some test products currently being placed in the field, we are fully prepared for future market developments in this segment of the broiler industry,” says Frédéric Fagnoul.
The people behind the product Hubbard is proud to say that they have very dedicated teams working every day to further improve their Premium breeds for our customers. All Hubbard’s staff is very passionate about their jobs in taking care of the company’s Premium birds and selecting the best candidates for the future. Everyone at Hubbard has the key objective to be ‘the natural choice to bring the taste with a difference to more people in the world!’ For further information, please contact Hubbard's regional sales representative or: marketing.hubbard@hubbardbreeders.com
COMPANY NEWS
Ventum. Dutch design, American standard! “The Ventum is developed to make our unique air inlet features and technologies available for American building and ventilation concepts”. The dimensions of the Ventum are more universal making it easily usable in renovation projects where existing inlets need replacement. Therefore this air inlet is also easy to use in renovation projects where existing inlets need replacement. The valve and frame of this inlet is equipped with wear resistant stripping all around to prevent air leakage and the curved inner corners of the frame help to optimize air intake. Our unique polyurethane formula and the use of air seals assures optimum insulation making the inlet ideal for extremely low temperatures. The inner flap is equipped with side skirts for an improved throw of air during minimum ventilation. The house of the Ventum has the following dimensions: 44” x 13”.
Mr. Craig England is the new President Moba USA Moba announced the new appointment of Mr. Craig England as the new President of Moba USA, effective as of January 16th 2020.
Big Dutchman and the President of PMSI among other things, before he found his way back. “With the acquisition of Diamond by Moba and the changes that have been made over the years, I feel my past tenure, as well as my experience in Customer Service, Engineering, Sales and Management, are suited perfectly to help provide the direction for Moba USA.”
Mr. England is a familiar face in the egg industry, and no stranger to Diamond systems. He began working in the egg industry at Diamond in 1984 and stayed at the company until 2006. One year later the Moba Group acquired Diamond Automation, and combined all American activities under the name Diamond Moba Americas, which eventually became Moba USA.
With three offices, in Farmington Hills, MI, Moreno Valley, CA and Weston, FL (for Latin America), Moba has a strong presence in the Americas. Mr. England will play an important role in supporting the continual growth of Moba in the US. “Moba has been and continues to be the world leader in egg handling equipment. With the combination of the strong Moba Group management as well as the innovations developed by the technical group, we are poised to be able to further provide solutions to the ever-changing challenges that face our industry today and in the future.” Mr. England will lead Moba USA from his office in Farmington Hills.
After his time at Diamond, Mr. England had different jobs within the poultry industry, as Vice President of
- march 2020 -
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©UEP
REPORTAGE
How can the poultry industry fight global warming while improving its bottom line?
By Stanley Kaye The writer is a poultry consultant for Agrotop. He has 30 years hands-on experience in poultry farming. He has an economics degree from Leeds University and an MBA from Heriot Watt University – Scotland.
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Global warming has become one of the most discussed topics in the last decade. Greta Thunberg, an almost unknown Swedish girl, became an international superstar and a legitimate Nobel prize candidate as the climate change debate took center stage. The rise in average temperatures has a direct impact on all aspects of life, including farming. For example, it was recently reported that global warming was threatening the traditional production of some of France’s most famous cheeses due to increasingly frequent extreme weather affecting how much fresh local grass French cows eat.
- reportage -
REPORTAGE
Farming is not only impacted by climate change but is also often accused of being a main contributor to environmental damage. As growing food and raising animals requires a lot of energy and resources, agriculture is often accused of being responsible for major greenhouse gas emissions.
©Agrotop
According to the United States Environment Protection Agency, only 6.9 percent of greenhouse gasses generated in the US comes from agriculture. The American poultry sector is responsible for only a small fraction (0.6%) of all greenhouse gas emissions coming from agriculture compared to beef cattle (37%) and dairy cattle (11.5%).
Poultry’s share Despite its marginal impact, it is worth taking a closer look at how poultry production contributes to greenhouse gas emissions and try to understand what can be done to reduce its impact. Scientists from the University of Georgia (UGA) conducted in depth research on this question.
• Manure and its treatment – The amount of greenhouse gas emitted from manure (litter) depends on how it is treated and disposed of.
What can be done Clearly, the main way to reduce emissions from poultry production is to reduce fossil fuel use. The best way to do this, while improving feed conversion and getting better results, is to have a well-designed, tight and well-insulated shed.
Emissions per animal per year. Source UGA.
Claudia S. Dunkley, a poultry scientist at UGA analyzed the issues behind global warming and its connection to poultry farming. She concluded that from all indication, most emissions generated from the poultry industry occurred during the production stage (i.e., the grow-out, pullet and breeder farms). According to her research paper, the two main sources of greenhouses gases from poultry farming are: • Fossil fuels – These sources of energy are used to heat the farm and power ventilation and lighting. Sixty-eight percent of emissions from broiler and pullet farms (which require heating) come from burning propane and some 20% from electricity.
When purchasing a shed, it is important to not just look at the price but also at the details. What is the “r-value of the insulation? Will the insulation maintain its r-value over time? Is the shed designed to prevent thermal bridges? Is the shed tight? Has the shed been optimized to allow free air flow (clean skin). The usage of well-designed ventilation equipment is also very important. The farmer must check that circulation films are properly positioned and controlled to reduce heating costs (as well as facilitating dry litter). Good, well-positioned air inlets are very important. Farmers should also consider that there is a wide variety of exhaust fans and a big difference in quality, translating into huge differences in their efficiency. Regardless of how one feels about global warming, farmers who take steps towards reducing the carbon footprint will not only reduce energy usage but will also save money and present a much better bottom line.
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FIELD REPORT
Potential to produce poultry feed from food wastes The annual food waste in Australia is estimated at 7.5 million tonnes with the majority disposed of in landfills. This not only causes significant economic loss but also has a negative environmental impact. This study aimed at investigating the possibility of recycling food waste into feed for poultry. requirements. Microbial contamination, free fatty acids, oxidation and nutrient digestibility need to be considered before valuable recycled food wastes can be used as a feed source for poultry.
Introduction
T.H. Dao1, V. Jayasena2, D. Hagare2, N. Boyle3, M. Rahman4, R.A. Swick1 1 School
of Environmental and Rural Science, University of New England, Australia 2
Western Sydney University, Australia 3
Norm Boyle Consulting Services, Australia
4
College of Engineering, King Faisal University, Saudi Arabia
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Nutrient contents of various waste streams were evaluated. The food waste collected from the services club and restaurant contained the highest levels of crude protein and crude fat (404 g/kg and 278 g/kg, respectively) while crude protein and crude fat content of food waste originating from bakeries and fruit-vegetable growers were 100 g/kg and 43 g/kg, respectively. The findings indicated that the blended material had an excessive Na concentration (6.5 g/kg), low Ca content (1.0 g/kg) and high/low concentrations of other nutrients relative to broiler grower feed requirements. Further studies are required to investigate the blending of waste streams with other nutrient sources to meet nutrient
- field report -
Food waste refers to “the discarding or alternative (non-food) use of food that was fit for human consumption - by choice or after the food has been left to spoil or expire as a result of negligence”. It is estimated that the global economic loss caused by food waste is US$ 1 trillion annually. The wasted amount of cereals, root crops, fruits and vegetables, fish, oilseeds, meat and dairy products in the food industry has been estimated to be between 20 to 50% each year. In Australia, the annual wasted food has been estimated to be 7.5 million tonnes equivalent to a loss of US$8 billion in 2014. The Australian national food waste report in 2016 showed that the quantity of food waste sent to landfills was greater than any other disposal system in 2014-2015, representing 58% of total food waste generation. When food is wasted, the costs related to the production, packaging, delivery, selling and preparation of that food is also lost. Furthermore, food waste ending up in landfills can cause serious environmental impacts. Some authors indicated that recycling of food waste as wet or a dry pig feed resulted in better environmental and public health outcomes than other food waste disposal methods such as composting and anaerobic digestion. As the world’s
FIELD REPORT
population is predicted to increase to 9.8 billion by 2050 food waste will increase proportionally suggesting the opportunity to further examine systems for recycling. In some Asian countries like Japan and South Korea, where the demands for animal feed are high, the recycling of food waste as animal feed is popular and is supported by local laws. Among the food waste sources, food dregs like bean curd or shochu dregs are the most common material being used to produce animal feed in Japan, which is followed by misdated food from supermarkets, bread, noodles and similar products. In Australia, although the food waste based feed is a new concept, the use of animal origin protein sources as poultry feed is not restricted by government legislation and thus is a potential area to develop. The main objective of the current study was to investigate nutrient levels in Australian food waste streams for use as poultry feed.
Methods Nine food related businesses, educational institutions and hospitals in the Hawkesbury district, NSW, Australia were requested to participate in the study with food waste collected over a 2 hour period (either 10am to 12 noon or 12 to 2pm) on agreed days. Most of these collections were carried out between March and June 2017. Samples were collected from 9 commercial operations such as, cafes, restaurants and bakeries. Buckets were provided with instructions to fill with kitchen scraps, serving waste and plate scraps. At the end of the 2 hour period, the buckets were collected and transported to the Hawkesbury campus of Western Sydney University in a refrigerated container for processing and producing food waste pellets. Only one sample was collected from each commercial operation. Hence, the consistency of the sample collected from each of the commercial operations was not checked. Collected food waste was screened to remove foreign objects with initial weights of all samples recorded. Food waste suppliers were de-identified and given general classifications, e.g. restaurant, hospital and supermarket. Food waste was heat treated on trays to 90 °C with steam for 10 min, then dehydrated at 70 °C for 30 hours in a large commercial dehydrator cabinet and ground to pass through a 3 mm screen. The powdered samples were analysed for moisture, crude protein (CP), crude fat (CF), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), sodium (Na), potassium (K) and phosphorus (P) and blended to produce extrud-
ed pellets. Pellets were produced by blending food waste samples with water (56:44) to produce a dough that was then passed through a Bottene pasta extruder to create 3mm x 6mm pellets. Pellets were dehydrated for 24 hours at 70 °C. The nutrient content of feed pellet samples including dry matter (DM), moisture, CP, CF, Ca, Mg, Na, K and P and ash content were analysed. This procedure is further described in Australian patent 2018100266.
Results The nutrient content of food waste samples and extruded pellets are presented in Table 1. The dry matter yield of different food waste sources ranged from 5% (fruit and vegetable waste) to 65% (bakery waste). The CP and CF contents were variable between the waste samples. Food waste collected from the services club and restaurant contained the highest levels of CP and CF (404 g/kg and 278 g/kg, respectively) while CP and CF contents of food waste originating from the bakeries and fruit-vegetable growers were 100 g/kg and 43 g/kg, respectively. Blended pellets were shown to have 187 g/kg CP and 151 g/kg CF (Table 1). The findings also indicated that final blended pellets had a high Na concentration (6.5 g/kg) and a low Ca content (1.0 g/kg) relative to nutrient requirements for meat chickens (Table 1).
Discussion Feed is the most significant cost of poultry production. Much of this is attributed to the protein/amino acid content. The results of the current study indicate that food waste may be able to supply a significant amount or all of the protein required for poultry feed. Further testing is required to assess nutrient consistency over time from each source. The protein content of the food waste sample collected from the services club was 404 g/kg being similar to that of other high protein ingredients used in the feed industry. Furthermore, some authors pointed out that significant feed cost reduction (32.9%) can be obtained when 50% of food waste mixture, containing restaurant food waste, bakery by-product and broiler litter, was incorporated into the normal diet for finishing pigs compared to the control ($0.57 vs $0.85/kg weight gain). More work needs to be done to determine digestible amino acid content of food waste and the cost of food waste
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FIELD REPORT
tained in the current study and those reported by some authors who reported dry matter, CP and CF contents of restaurant food waste on DM basis to be 191 g/kg, 220 g/kg and 126 g/kg, respectively and bakery by-product were 890 g/kg, 95 g/kg and 20 g/kg, respectively. Other reports have indicated fat and protein contents of restaurant waste to be higher (17.3% and 25%, respectively) and
based feed in Australia. In addition, as the quantity of food waste might change between the regions and seasons of the year, further studies on availability of food waste in defined areas is necessary to determine the reliability and sustainability of waste streams as a continuing material source. The fat and Na content of blended food-waste was higher and calcium was lower than broiler grower
Table 1 – Nutrient content of food waste samples and blended pellets (g/kg unless noted). WFW2 (g)
PFW3 (%)
CP4
CF
DM
Ca
Mg
Na
K
P
Café 1
5992
38
122
122
310
0.5
0.5
4.6
4.1
2.1
Restaurant
8950
14
362
278
150
0.6
0.5
10.9
8.9
3.0
Fruit and vegetable market
4744
10
118
35
70
1.0
0.8
1.1
13.4
1.7
Café 2 and 3
3175
3
180
178
260
0.6
0.5
6.5
6.6
2.7
Fruit and vegetable grower
8783
6
188
43
50
0.9
1.4
2.6
17.6
3.1
Retirement home
8874
3
279
226
250
1.6
0.5
11.4
6.4
2.7
Services club
945
16
404
165
250
0.3
0.6
3.2
5.1
2.7
Educational institute
4001
2
225
219
280
1.2
0.5
3.0
4.4
2.2
Bakery
7947
8
100
64
650
0.4
0.3
4.7
2.7
1.1
-
-
187
151
949
1.0
0.5
6.5
5.6
2.5
-
-
215
-
-
8.7
0.5-5.0
1.6-2.3
4.0-9.0
4.4
Sample type
Pellet Nutrient requirement
1
1
Nutrient requirement for meat chicken grower feed based on nutrition specifications for Ross 308 broiler (Aviagen, 2014). WFW: Amount of food waste collected. 3 PFW: Percentages of food waste sources used for feed (pellet) formulation. 4 CP, CF and mineral content of the samples were calculated as on DM basis. 2
requirements. Free fatty acids, oxidation and metabolisable energy need to be considered. Variability is an issue that needs consideration as indicated by various research groups. However, solutions to solve this problem have been rarely mentioned in those studies. Processing method might play an important role in maintaining nutritional composition of the food waste. Some authors found that chemical composition of food waste dehydrated by fry cooking ranged from 1.2 - 1.8% only. In addition, it has been suggested that, when garbage food waste is collected from numerous origins and blended, nutrient variability will decrease. It is proposed that the issues associated with nutrient variation in the food waste based feed can be addressed through measurement and blending of various waste streams and incorporation of other ingredients such as amino acids, limestone, phosphate, vitamins, trace minerals, antioxidants and antifungal agents. There is a good agreement between nutrient values ob-
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metabolisable energy level to be lower (2344 Kcal ME/kg) compared to the nutrient requirement for meat chickens. In contrast, bakery waste is rich in energy but has low protein and mineral levels. Importantly, other authors pointed out that the general hygiene and chemical safety of food waste feed produced in China were good with low risks of pathogen and organic contamination but the product safety related to salt concentration was rather low. The variable CP and high sodium contents observed in the food waste based feed in this study can be solved by applying processing methods that blends various waste streams to produce an optimum final product to be used on a commercial scale. To achieve this optimum blend, further data collection and analysis are required.
- field report -
References available on request From the proceedings of the 2019 Australian Poultry Science Symposium
Image: Fotolia - © Minerva Studio
FIELD REPORT
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DOSSIER
Role of the hatchery in Antibiotic Free (ABF) production In the hatchery itself there is never a direct reason to apply antibiotics, as the chicks do not stay here for any length of time. If antibiotics are applied (in-ovo or by injection after hatch) this is done preventively to avoid disease problems or for potential benefits at the farm where the day-old-chicks will be delivered. Furthermore, on the farm itself antibiotics can be administered by feed or drinking water as a preventive measure or as a growth promotor.
Gerd de Lange, Senior Poultry Specialist, Pas Reform Academy
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This way of using antibiotics is coming under increasing criticism, as it leads to anti-microbial resistance (AMR), which means that bacteria might eventually become resistant to antibiotics. In the long run this causes problems for the treatment of diseases in humans and animals. Many modern poultry companies now aim to produce without using antibiotics, or at least to limit their use to therapeutic purposes only. Some countries have introduced legislation outlawing the use of antibiotics both as a preventive measure and as a growth promotor; in other countries companies are responding to
- dossier -
consumer demands for ‘safe & clean’ food. The question now is what role hatcheries could play in helping to stop the preventive use of antibiotics and to reduce the need for therapeutic use. This is clearly visualized in the figure below. Poultry, for example a broiler flock, will stay healthy if the following two conditions are met: 1. High disease resistance, so the animals are robust and have a high level of immunity. 2. Low disease pressure, so pathogens (e.g. bacteria, viruses) are absent or only present at very low concentrations.
DOSSIER
Under these conditions there is no need to apply antibiotics and the broiler flock will potentially perform very well.
However, if disease resistance is low and/or disease pressure high, problems are likely to occur on the broiler farm. In this case it is tempting to use antibiotics preventively, as otherwise it is more likely that they will have to be used therapeutically in the event of problems such as increased mortality.
Advice Deliver day-old-chicks with high disease resistance by applying Good Management Practices on the breeder farm and in the hatchery. These include: • Provide optimal incubation conditions to ensure strong and vital day-old chicks (with a well-closed navel and well-absorbed yolk sac). • Apply a good vaccination program on the breeder farm or broiler farm and in the hatchery to ensure a high level of immunity. • Avoid stress factors for embryos and chicks, such as overheating, chilling, dehydration and delayed feed access. • Keep disease pressure in the hatchery low through Good Hygiene Practices: • Implement biosecurity measures to prevent pathogens from entering the hatchery; this includes good egg hygiene. • Avoid cross-contamination to prevent transport of pathogens within the hatchery. • Clean and disinfect regularly to prevent further development of pathogens in the hatchery.
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FOCUS
Genomics and biotechnology in poultry breeding
Šwww.discovermagazine.com
an increase in selection accuracy ranging from 5% to 50% over conventional selection depending on the trait. For turkeys, the impact of genomic selection means an additional rate of genetic gain of about +20grs of live weight and -0.01 FCR per year.
Genomics in poultry breeding
S. Avendano and S. Tyack Aviagen Ltd, Newbridge, Edinburgh, UK
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Since the release of the chicken and turkey DNA sequences in 2004 and 2010, respectively, poultry breeders have access to genomic information to increase accuracy of selection. The term genomic selection refers to the use of the naturally occurring DNA variation in the genome to predict breeding values. Genomic selection is routinely used in broiler, turkey and layer commercial breeding programmes. Aviagen incorporated genomic selection in broiler and turkey breeding programmes in 2013 and 2017, respectively. The company predicts that genomic selection will contribute with
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The use of DNA for predicting breeding values constitutes a recent breakthrough that allows combining traditional sources of information (e.g. pedigrees and phenotypic records) with the naturally occurring variation in the genome. It is key to emphasise that this process does not involve manipulating or artificially altering the genomic information in any way, but rather enhances the selective breeding process. The following sections focus on techniques which are not currently used in commercial breeding programmes. These techniques, collectively called New Breeding Technologies (NBT’s), rely on biotechnology applications to achieve specific novel changes in the genome. Aviagen will focus on a specific NBT technique called Gene Editing (GE) providing recent examples of its potential application in plants, livestock and poultry breeding and human medicine and discuss the current regulatory framework.
Biotechnology in agriculture and the emergence of new breeding techniques In 1973 Boyer and Cohen create the first genetically engineered organism – a bacteria with an added gene to confer antibiotic resistance. This began the pursuit of modifying organisms for the improvement of species and their modification for research purposes. In 1982 the United States Food
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and Drug Administration approved synthetic insulin produced from genetically engineered bacteria for use in humans. In 1994 the California based company Calgene (purchased by Monsanto in 1997) introduced the first genetically engineered food, the Flavr Savr tomato, which was engineered to stay firm when ripe. In 1996 the multinational Monsanto (now owned by Bayer), released its first genetically modified crops and within a few years, Roundup Ready corn, soybeans, cotton, sugar beets, and canola dominated the market.
This repair can result in a perfect repair or the insertion and/or deletion of random amounts of DNA. To make very specific known changes in the genome, a piece of DNA can be included in the process that is used to repair the cut. This method, known as homology-directed repair (HDR), has the same results as NHEJ except the genomic DNA sequence is repaired exactly as is provided in the HDR DNA.
In recent years, GE has captured enormous attention given its potential application in a wide range of fields ranging from plant and livestock breeding to human medicine. In contrast with Genomic Selection, GE involves altering the naturally occurring DNA configuration of the genome to add and or delete individual bases or DNA segments to achieve a specific biological response in the phenotype. NBT’s have brought about new fields of research allowing the examination of biological processes and the production of animals, plants and crops with enhanced commercial traits. Despite its recent focus, GE in its current form has been used since the 1990’s. The ability to make deletions in the genome has allowed researchers to adapt and/or manipulate functions within the cell for research and commercial purposes. As new technologies have been discovered and developed, the ease and the reduced cost of application have made GE available to universities and small and large biotechnology companies. The latest technology, called CRISPR-Cas9, is cheap, easy to apply and has been widely taken up as the technique of choice for GE. The CRISPR-Cas9 system is part of the naturally occurring adaptive immune response of bacteria. When a bacteria is exposed to an invading virus, the bacteria maintains its protection by keeping a small piece of viral DNA (guide DNA) in its own genome and uses this piece to patrol the cell looking for an identical copy. If it finds it, this is an indication of infection and it will cut that DNA to interfere with virus replication. By providing the CRISPR-Cas9 protein with an artificial guide sequence, the protein can be directed to nearly any DNA sequence and produce a cut in that specific location in the genome. This cut in the genomic DNA can be repaired randomly by a normal DNA repair mechanism of the cell known as non-homologous end-joining (NHEJ).
Figure 1
In Figure 1 CRISPR-Cas9 finds the target sequence by comparing to a guide sequence. In non-homologous end joining (NHEJ) the DNA is repaired randomly by the normal cell machinery, resulting in a perfect repair – which will be cut again – or imperfectly resulting in DNA changes, insertion and/or deletion of random DNA sequences. By including a piece of DNA that precisely repairs the target region, the homology directed repair (HDR) process can make specific changes to the target DNA. The CRISPR-Cas9 technology has been used to delete or add small specific pieces of genomic DNA from and to the genome. Through changes of the enzyme, this technology is also able to mutate bases within the genome, making subtle changes that can increase or decrease the amount of protein produced within the cell. In a similar fashion, small, or larger, parts of proteins can be replaced with new sequences that change functions of that protein.
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Applications in plants There have been a wide range of GE applications in plants. Perhaps the most widely known is the production of a ‘waxy’ corn variety that has had a deletion made in its genome causing the composition of starch in the corn kernel to contain very high levels of Amylopectin allowing a much broader range of commercial uses. This gene variant was already present naturally, so CRISPR-Cas9 GE was used to increase its frequency in breeding populations. This new generation ‘waxy’ corn is due for commercial release in 2020. CRISPR-Cas9 has been used in rice, wheat, tomato, cucumber and other plant crops to increase their resistance to disease gene deletions. Improvements in the storage and longevity of harvested produce have been seen in apples and mushrooms where some of the enzymes that cause browning have been removed. These apples and mushrooms will still brown but at a slower rate, helping counter the waste in food supply when food spoils. Similarly, in soybeans, a genome deletion results in improved shelf life and heat stability of soybean oil. In the paper production business, GE has been used in eucalyptus to produce a tree that can survive freezing temperatures, opening up new geographic regions for tree growth while at the same time introducing sexual sterility to achieve genetic containment and avoid genetic migration into non-GE varieties.
Applications in animals While more difficult to implement in animals than in plants, animals have had numerous successes through GE in recent years. Two genome edits resulting in disease resistance have been achieved in pigs. In the first case, a porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) resistant pig was produced by deleting part of the virus receptor, the protein used by the virus to enter the cell. The second case involves exchange of the receptor protein between two closely related porcine species. Domestic pigs are susceptible to African Swine Fever Virus (ASFV) while warthogs are resistant. By moving the warthog gene to the domestic pig genome, researchers have made an ASFV immune pig. Also in pigs, researchers have repaired a gene that is non-functional in pigs but functional in other mammals. The gene is involved in energy usage and when repaired, the edited pigs were able to maintain their body tempera-
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ture thereby reducing the need to provide strict temperature-controlled environments. The repaired protein is able to breakdown fat to provide the energy needed by the pig and the modified pigs had 24% less body fat than non-modified pen mates. In dairy cattle, GE was used to produce hornless calves, by bringing the polled mutation from a beef cattle population in which it is naturally present, into the same location in the genome of a Holstein dairy cow. The polled mutation is found in some cattle that prevents the growth of horns. This edit brought a lot of media attention due to its potential practical application in eliminating manual de-horning hence its potential welfare benefits as well as safer herd management by farmers. While the introgression of the polled mutation into the Holstein elite dairy cattle could take place through natural breeding, the loss of superior dairy-related traits would require many generations of back-crossing to return the Holstein dairy line back to be a high performing dairy cow. Similar to the waxy corn example, GE was used to introduce a naturally occurring variation from one breed type to another. In chickens, researchers have used CRISPR-Cas9 to generate cells resistant to Avian Leukosis subgroup J (ALV-J) by editing the virus cell surface receptor. Only one amino-acid change in the protein structure confers resistance. This work was done in cells and there is no evidence so far that the same effects would be seen in live birds. Work on Avian Influenza resistance using GE is progressing for a number of candidate regions in the chicken genome reported to have an impact on virus replication. So far, all the work is exploratory, and no evidence is available that those edits would confer resistance or resilience in birds either experimentally or under a field challenge. Clearly, the greatest potential for GE in poultry is for disease resistance. In an effort towards producing safer egg derived food products researchers have deleted two of the major allergens from chicken eggs. While not removing all allergens, these eggs may allow people with egg allergies to eat cooked egg products. Another potential application is the editing of the chicken genome for vaccine manufacture. Human influenza vaccines are produced using embryonated eggs and researchers have targeted the deletion of genes in the chicken genome which restrict virus growth to produce eggs that give higher yields of virus for vaccine production. The ability to produce eggs with
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high vaccine yield could have implications for the whole vaccine production chain (reducing the number of eggs needed per dose and reducing transport cost and waste). The use of chickens as bio-reactors for protein-based medication has also been a focus of attention. Recently, researchers used CRISPR-Cas9 to edit chickens to produce human proteins in their eggs. Researchers have focused on two proteins with therapeutic potential, Interferon Alpha 2a which has powerful antiviral and anti-cancer effects and the macrophage CSF which is being developed as a therapy that stimulates damaged tissues to repair themselves.
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Applications in humans GE of human reproductive tissue is prohibited in many countries and strongly restricted in others. In other cell types, GE technologies have already reached clinical trials. The pace at which GE enters human clinical trials is bound to accelerate in coming years as successful pre-clinical studies move into clinical trials for genetic diseases that are difficult to manage or even incurable. In a research environment, genome editing has been used to correct defects in immune cells in humans. People with rare genetic defects in their immune system can have cells removed, repaired with genome editing and replaced back in the patient. The use of GE to modify the patient’s immune system cells to specifically target cancerous cells is a reality in the clinical treatment of cancer. The use of modified immune T cells to treat children with B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukaemia has been granted an EU license and the treatment is available in England through the National Health Service (NHS). This treatment is now being expanded to adults with lymphoma. This constitutes a breakthrough in the treatment of cancer and it is expected that similar applications using GE will become increasingly available. In contrast to the cell therapies, late in 2018, a researcher from China announced production of the first GE human twins. The twins had been modified to be immune to HIV. This work has raised a number of ethical concerns and there is wide international discussion amongst researchers and regulators about assessing the evolving scientific landscape, possible clinical applications, and attendant societal reactions to human GE.
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The widely reported successes of GE applications in humans for clinical use and the current ethical debate of certain applications undoubtedly puts GE under the public opinion light. This will no doubt allow the general public to be more aware of the technique and its potential, but it is not clear whether its acceptability for food production will follow the same direction of its acceptability as a therapeutic tool.
Regulatory framework Regulation on GE plants, animals and organisms is far from universal and far from finalized. In some areas, regulatory bodies have proposed to continue to regulate GE plants in the same way as Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO). However, GE has raised the question about what qualifies as a GMO and whether distinction should be made between changes within a species, putting naturally occurring DNA segments in different locations of the genome, and modifying a genome with elements from other species? Further, how should a NBT not classified as a GMO be regulated? The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) has recently suggested criteria for excluding a GE from the GMO regulatory process. In short, changes that could happen during the normal reproduction process should not be regulated as a GMO. A GE product that the USDA does not regulate will still require Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) regulation to ensure that the product is not a plant pest and Food and Drug Administration (FDA) regulation to ensure the food is safe to eat – if the product is planned for consumption. Some South American countries have adopted a similar logic with a case-by-case regulatory framework for NBT-derived products. This allows for informed regulation of a product rather than relying solely on the method used to create the new product. In Europe, the European Court of Justice (ECJ) has recently issued the judgment that organisms obtained using NBT’s of directed mutagenesis (including GE) are GMOs and subject to the obligations of the GMO Directive legislation. This could potentially have profound effects on the future research and commercial application of GE in Europe. There is an active dialogue across stakeholders and the general public including calls for a revision of the GMO Directive to reflect current knowledge and scientific evidence and assess if GE should be covered under the GMO legislation.
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The regulation of NBT-derived animals is less clear as regulators have produced less conclusive documentation regarding animals. In the USA, the FDA has proposed to regulate all animals whose genomes have been “intentionally altered” as GMO’s and put them through the “New Animal Drug” regulatory process. Under this regulation, each modification undertaken in an animal would be regulated as a separate new animal drug and would require the expensive and onerous process of going through the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic (FD&C) Act for commercialization. It doesn't help the regulatory process in the USA where agencies are still arguing over who should regulate NBT-derived products.
Final remarks GE is a technique that is currently readily available to researchers and examples of its potential application in plants and animal breeding, and human medicine is growing exponentially. In humans GE based therapies are already available and in plant breeding there are already varieties getting close to commercialization. On the other hand, in livestock GE has not yet gone beyond the proof of concept stages and it is not clear whether this technique will crystalize as a breeding technique in plants and animals. The regulatory framework is still evolving, and public acceptability and product safety of the products derived from GE (and NTBs in general) must be carefully considered before evaluating the use of this technique in commercial animal breeding programmes. For the foreseeable future poultry breeders will use traditional breeding technologies and techniques including genomics selection to exploit the naturally occurring variation in the DNA as an additional tool to increase selection accuracy. Modern breeding goals are balanced and include traits related to a range of biological functions (e.g., growth, yield feed efficiency, reproductive fitness, environmental adaptability and welfare) so while a specific change in the DNA could lead to a beneficial change in one trait, it is critical to consider its impact on other traits.
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References are available on request From the Proceedings of the 13th Turkey Science and Production Conference
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H.
Z. Wiśniewska1, K. Wimmers2,3, T. Szwaczkowski4
Reyer2,
1Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, Department of Animal Nutrition, Poznan University of Life Sciences, Poznan, Poland 2Institute
of Genome Biology, Leibniz Institute for Farm Animal Biology, Dummerstorf, Germany 3Faculty
of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, University of Rostock, Rostock, Germany 4Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, Department of Genetics and Animal Breeding, Poznan University of Life Sciences, Poznań, Poland
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Meta-analysis of genetic parameters of feed conversion The objective of this study was to estimate the impact of some factors on heritability estimates of body weight (BW), feed conversion ratio (FCR), feed intake (FI), age at first egg (AFE), egg production (EP) and egg weight (EW). Data were possessed from 75 peer reviewed scientific papers published in 1986–2015 years. Introduction Over the last decades, a number of genetic parameter estimates for chicken traits have been reported in literature. It is suspected that these estimates vary across populations, time as well as statistical methods and models. The objective of this study was to estimate the impact of some factors on heritability estimates of body weight, feed conversion ratio, feed intake, age at first egg, egg production and egg weight.
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Material and methods The heritabilities of the following chicken traits were studied: body weight (BW), feed conversion ratio (FCR), feed intake (FI), age at first egg (AFE), egg production (EP) and egg weight (EW). Data were extracted from 75 peer reviewed scientific papers published in the years 1986–2015 by the following scientific journals: Archiv Tierzucht, ARPN Journal of Agricultural and Biological Science, BMC Genetics, BMC Genomics, British Poultry Science, Canadian Journal of Animal Science, Genetics and Molecular Biology, Genetic and Molecular Research, Genetics Selection Evolution, Indian Journal of Animal Research, Journal of Animal and Poultry Sciences, Indian Journal of Animal Sciences, Iranian Journal of Applied Animal Science, Journal of Animal Breeding and Genetics, Journal of Applied Genetics, Journal of Applied Poultry Research, Life Science Journal, Livestock Production Science, Livestock Research for Rural Development, Livestock Science, Nigerian Journal of Animal Production, Poultry Science, Tropical Animal Health and Production as well as literature data (genetic and breeding part) collected for the ECO-FCE project. The heritability estimates were classified (depending on traits) according to: breed (commercial and local ones), size of population (linear covariable), sex (males, females and combined analyses), trait recording period (linear covariable), statistical method (Gibbs sampling, REML and others) and models (unitrait sire, sire and dam animal and random/fixed models, multitrait models). More details on structure of the data are given in Table 2. Three approaches were applied: analysis of variance with Tukey’s honest significance post-hoc test, multiple regression equations, and 95% and 99% confidence intervals for expected values of heritabilities were constructed. General formula of the linear model is as follows: Yijkl…= µ + Bi + Sj + mk + Ml + b1p(w)i + b2Nijk + (BS)ij + (Bm)ik + (BM)il + (Sm)jk + (SM)jl + (mM)kl + eijkl where: yijk – observed heritability estimate; µ - overall mean; Bi – fixed effect of breed; Sj – fixed effect of sex (in the case of egg production traits, the effect is omitted); mk – fixed effect of model; Ml – fixed effect of method; p(w)iijkl – size of population included as linear covariable;
Nijkl – period included as linear covariable (for some traits, only); b1 and b2 – partial linear regression coefficients for size of population and recording period, respectively; (BS)ij – fixed effect of interaction between breed and sex; (Bm)ik – fixed effect of interaction between breed and model; (BM)il – fixed effect of interaction between breed and method; (Sm)jk – fixed effect of interaction between sex and model; (SM)jl – fixed effect of interaction between sex and method; eijkl – random error connected with ijklth observations. These computations were performed using the R software (R Development Core Team, 2008).
Results and discussion Confidence intervals for expected value with significance level of 0.05 and 0.01 were estimated for each trait (Table 1). Table 1 – Confidence intervals for expected values of heritability of six chicken performance traits. Trait
Significance level = 0.05
Significance level = 0.01
Lower cutoff
Upper cutoff
Lower cutoff
Upper cutoff
BW
0.350
0.395
0.343
0.402
FCR
0.224
0.311
0.209
0.325
FI
0.321
0.445
0.299
0.467
AFE
0.296
0.370
0.284
0.383
EP
0.197
0.240
0.190
0.247
EW
0.389
0.451
0.379
0.462
Note on symbols: BW - body weight, FCR - feed conversion ratio, FI - feed intake, AFE - age at first egg, EP - egg production, EW egg weight.
Generally, the sizes of subclasses within the factors varied. As expected, a majority of reports (for all traits) were performed in the commercial populations. The methodology was usually based on restricted maximum likelihood under a single trait animal model (with direct additive genetic effects). Basic characteristics of the influence of the factors studied on heritability estimates (including standard deviations) are given in Table 2. For a majority of traits the higher heritabilities were estimated for commercial populations compared to local flocks. It is probably connected with both number of reports and population sizes. In the case of FCR and EW, the highest estimates of h² (and statistically significant) were estimated via a Gibbs
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Table 2 – Average heritability estimates (and standard deviations) for traits studied in consecutive subclasses. Factor
Description
Breed
Method
Model
Sex
BW
FCR
local breed
0.331 (0.150)
commercial populations
FI
AFE
EP
EW
0.236 (0.111)
0.294 (0.136)
0.284 (0.100)
0.315 (0.158)
0.392 (0.165)
0.282 (0.164)
0.347 (0.119)
0.211 (0.141)
0.451 (0.150)
Restricted Maximum Likelihood
0.390 (0.158)
0.215 (0.094)
0.353 (0.146)
0.356 (0.123)
0.206 (0.133)
0.439 (0.153)
Gibbs sampling
0.364 (0.096)
0.306 (0.183)
0.337 (0.169)
0.222 (0.117)
0.378 (0.130)
0.350 (0.144)
other methods
0.340 (0.178)
0.282 (0.161)
0.475 (0.158)
0.290 (0.066)
0.157 (0.065)
0.342 (0.192)
single trait animal model
0.377 (0.152)
0.247 (0.140)
0.359 (0.147)
0.333 (0.126)
0.219 (0.135)
0.427 (0.157)
single trait sire and dam model
0.379 (0.161)
0.342 (0.147)
0.418 (0.170)
0.340 (0.117)
0.170 (0.076)
0.100 (0.195)
single trait sire model
0.379 (0.161)
0.268 (0.167)
0.620 (0.000)
multitrait models
0.570 (0.028)
0.320 (0.017)
0.470 (0.000)
fixed/random regression model
0.425 (0.021)
0.120 (0.028)
0.175 (0.064)
males
0.342 (0.148)
0.299 (0.101)
0.298 (0.065)
females
0.431 (0.139)
0.330 (0.195)
0.575 (0.205)
with sex effect
0.361 (0.170)
0.257 (0.156)
0.390 (0.162)
0.238 (0.167)
Note on symbols: BW - body weight, FCR - feed conversion ratio, FI - feed intake, AFE - age at first egg, EP - egg production, EW - egg weight.
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sampling approach. On the other hand, for BW, AFE and EW higher h² were received via REML, whereas for FI by other methods. However, it is well known that precision of parameter estimates depends on the assumption of the statistical models. When an empirical normal distribution does not hold, the residual variance is overestimated. It leads to underestimation of heritability coefficients. Unfortunately, the effects of data transformation are not examined here. In turn, omission of the important effect from the model affects the magnitude of the variance components. The effects of the linear model are quite different for the traits analyzed. Several comparative studies on Gibbs sampling and REML estimates in chicken have been performed by other authors as well as in other livestock populations. Bayesian estimates were usually higher than REML ones. However, the reported dependencies were considerably determined by population specific and statistical modeling of the traits. Also some differences in heritabilities were observed among males and females, and combined analysis of both of them. It should be stressed that interactions between some fixed
effects were statistically significant. For instance, in the case of AFE, an interaction between breed and the linear model was statistically significant (P=0.017). It confirms the need for specification of the statistical model for a given population. Also both covariables (population size and recording period) were significantly affected by the magnitude of heritability estimates. Generally, the results obtained via the analysis of variance correspond with the ones found on the basis of multiple regression.
Conclusions Generally, the results indicate statistically significant effects of studied factors on magnitudes of heritability estimates. The performed study shows the importance of correct statistical modeling in the estimation of genetic parameters. References are available on request From the Proceedings of the 6th Mediterranean Poultry Summit
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Dynamics and patterns of the egg industry in the Emerging Market Countries between 2007 and 2017
©Sabbatani
Part 1 – The development of the laying hen inventories
• an intermediate income between 10% and 75% of the average EU per capita income,
Introduction In four papers, the dynamics of egg production and egg trade in the Emerging Market Countries (EMC) will be analysed.
Hans-Wilhelm Windhorst The author is scientific director of the WING at the Hannover Veterinary University and Prof. emeritus of the University of Vechta, Germany
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developed countries. Van Agtmael coined the term of emerging market countries. This should indicate that they were transforming their socio-economic systems to more market-oriented economies. The term should also stress the fact that these countries might become attractive trade partners for the old industrialised countries. In 2009, Vladimir Kvint published a book with the title “The Global Emerging Market: Strategic Management and Economics”. He analysed the factors which initialized the transformation process. In the following years, a great number of publications appeared which dealt with the classification of such countries and the parameters by which they could be characterised. It is obvious that there is no generally accepted list of countries which belong to the group of emerging markets. Julien Vercueil (2012) suggested that a more pragmatic term was emerging economies. Countries belonging to such a group could be characterised by:
The term emerging market was first used in 1981 by Antoine Van Agtmael, a World Bank economist, to characterise a group of countries which were in a transformation phase from developing to developed countries. This term substituted a classification which was used in the 1970s, distinguishing between less developed countries and
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• a fast economic growth over the past decade, which narrowed the income gap between less developed and developed economies, • and institutional transformation processes which allowed a better integration into the world economy. In this report, a list of 37 emerging market countries (EMC), based on classifications of the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund and the Food and Agricultural Organisation (FAO) will be used1. In 2017, they
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shared 68.2% of the global population, 68.1% of the world laying hen inventory and 73.4% of global egg production.
Table 2 – The fifteen EMC with the highest GDP in 2017 (Source: World Bank and IMF). Country
The status of the EMC in the global population and the Gross Domestic Product Between 2007 and 2017, the population in the 37 EMC increased from 4.58 billion to 5.09 billion people or by 11.1%. In the same decade, the global population grew by 12.6% or 837 mill. The EMC shared 56.4% in the global population growth. Table 1 – The fifteen EMC with the highest population in 2017 and their absolute and relative increase since 2007; data in 1,000 (Source: FAO database). 2017
Absolute increase
Relative Increase (%)
China
1,441,131
74,095
5.4
India
Country
1,339,180
159,499
13.5
Indonesia
263,991
31,002
13.3
Brazil
209,288
18,261
9.6
Pakistan
197,016
36,683
22.9
Nigeria
190,886
43,747
29.7
Bangladesh
174,670
28,253
19.3
Russia
143,990
840
0.6
Mexico
129,163
17,327
15.5
Philippines
104,918
15,625
17.5
Egypt
97,553
18,016
22.7
Viet Nam
95,541
9,651
11.2
Iran
81,163
9,132
12.7
Turkey
80,745
11,148
16.0
Thailand
69,038
2,842
4.3
15 countries
4,618,273
476,121
14.3
EMC
5,146,615
510,847
11.0
World
7,550,262
843,844
12.6
GDP (billion $)
Share (%) in Global GDP
China
12,237.8
15.2
India
2,597.5
3.2
Russia
1,577.5
2.0
Korea, Rep.
1,530.8
1.9
Mexico
1,149.9
1.4
Indonesia
1,015.5
1.3
Turkey
851.1
1.1
Saudi Arabia
683.8
0.8
Argentina
637.6
0.8
Taiwan
579.3
0.7
Poland
524.5
0.6
Thailand
455.2
0.6
Iran
439.5
0.5
U.A. Emirates
382.6
0.5
Nigeria
375.8
0.5
15 countries
25,038.4
31.0
EMC
29,587.9
36.7
World
80,683.8
100.0
It is worth noting that the EMC shared 68.2% in the global population but only 31.0% in the global GDP. This documents the considerable difference in the economic strength of the individual countries and the wide gaps between them and the leading market economies.
The dynamics in the development of the laying hen inventories in the EMC In Table 3, the development of the population, the laying hen inventories and egg production between 2007 and
The fifteen EMC with the highest population contributed 92.4% to the total growth of the EMC. The highest absolute increase showed India, China, Nigeria and Pakistan; the highest relative growth rate Nigeria, Pakistan, Egypt and the Philippines. The lowest relative increase was to be found in Russia, Thailand, China and Brazil. The global GDP reached a volume 80,683.8 trillion US-$. To this, the 37 EMC contributed 29,587.9 trillion US-$ or 36.7%. Within the group, the values differed considerably. While China generated a GNP of 12,238 trillion US-$, sharing 15.2% of the global GDP, Nigeria only 375.8 mill. US-$ or a share 0.5% (Table 2).
Table 3 – The development of the population and the laying hen inventories in the EMC between 2007 and 2017 in comparison with the global dynamics (Source: FAO database; own calculations). 2007 Region
Population (mill.)
Laying hens (mill.)
EMC
4,635.8
3,186.9
World
6,706.4
4,929.5
69.1
64.6
Share of EMC (%)
2017 EMC
5,146.6
4,400.3
World
7,550.3
6,459.9
68.2
68.1
Share of EMC (%)
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ŠVencomatic
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2017 is compared to the global dynamics. The laying hen inventories in the EMC grew by 1.21 billion birds or 38.1%. This resulted in an increase of the contribution to the global laying hen inventory by 3.5%. In contrast, the global inventories increased only by 32.1%. Table 4 shows a list of the fifteen EMC with the highest number of laying hens in 2007 and 2017. A closer analysis reveals some remarkable changes in the ranking of the countries. While India ranked in third place behind China and Brazil in 2007, it stepped up to second place in 2017. Indonesia fell from rank 4 to rank 7 while Bangladesh climbed from rank 8 to rank 4. Mexico and Russia were able to maintain their ranks while Pakistan, Turkey and Malaysia gained higher ranks in 2017 compared to 2007. Iran was re-
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Table 4 – The fifteen EMC with the largest laying hen inventories in 2007 and 2017 (Source: FAO database; own corrections). 2007 Country
Laying hens (1,000)
2017 Share (%) in the Country global inventory
Laying hens (1,000)
Share (%) in the global inventory
China
912,625
18.5
China
1,403,359
21.7
Brazil
260,000
5.3
India
402,976
6.2
India
248,000
5.0
Brazil
339,000
5.2
Indonesia
223,000
4.5
Bangladesh
301,000
4.7
Mexico
181,290
3.7
Mexico
202,155
3.1
Russia
134,054
2.7
Russia
196,906
3.0
Nigeria
121,000
2.5
Indonesia
166,723
2.6
Bangladesh
106,000
2.2
Pakistan
148,000
2.3
Ukraine
103,400
2.1
Turkey
121,556
1.9
Pakistan
92,000
1.9
Nigeria
115,000
1.8
Philippines
77,000
1.6
Malaysia
109,000
1.7
Iran
62,500
1.3
Philippines
98,500
1.5
Malaysia
63,500
1.3
Thailand
93,000
1.4
Turkey
64,286
1.3
Ukraine
91,200
1.4
Korea, Rep
56,093
1.1
Korea, Rep.
72,710
1.1
15 countries
2,704,748
*54.9
15 countries
3,861,085
*59.8
EMC
3,186,911
64.6
EMC
4,400,300
68.1
World
4,929,512
100.0
World
6,459,900
100.0
* sum does not add because of rounding
- marketing -
MARKETING
placed by Ukraine. The fifteen leading EMC gained 4.9% in their share in the global laying hen inventory, the 37 EMC 3.5%. This documents the faster growth of the laying hen flocks in the fifteen leading countries in comparison to the whole group. Table 5 lists the fifteen EMC with the highest absolute and relative growth of their laying hen inventories. The composition and ranking of the countries regarding the relative growth is not identical with that of the absolute increase as a comparison easily shows. A closer look at the data reveals that the absolute growth of the laying hen inventory in the fifteen EMC was higher than that of the whole group. This documents that in several EMC
Table 5 – The fifteen EMC with the highest absolute and relative increase of their laying hen inventories between 2007 and 2017 (Source: FAO database; own calculations). Highest absolute increase Country
Highest relative increase
1,000 hens
Country
%
China
490,734
Bangladesh
184.0
Bangladesh
195,000
Oman
123.1
India
174,583
U.A. Emirates
113.0
Malaysia
95,500
Turkey
89.1
Brazil
79,000
Qatar
84.6
Russian Fed.
62,852
China
78.1
Turkey
57,270
Malaysia
71.7
Pakistan
56,000
S. Arabia
68.8
Philippines
31,500
India
62.5
Mexico
20,865
Egypt
61.4
Colombia
19,074
Pakistan
60.9
Korea, Rep.
16,617
Colombia
57.9
Thailand
16,000
Peru
54.2
Viet Nam
15,535
Argentina
53.8
Argentina
15,454
Philippines
47.0
15 countries
1,345,984
15 countries
42.8
EMC
1,213,389
EMC
38.1
World
1,530,388
World
31.0
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29
MARKETING
Figure 1 – Laying hen inventory in Emerging Market Countries in 2017.
the number of laying hens must have decreased. The relative growth rate in the fifteen EMC and in the whole group was much higher than at the global level. From this one can conclude that the EMC played a decisive role in the global dynamics of the laying hen inventories and in egg production. It is worth noting that ten of the fifteen EMC with the highest increase of their laying hen flocks were located in Asia. China, Bangladesh and India alone contributed 56.2% to the growth of the global laying hen inventory. Of the fifteen EMC with the highest relative growth of their laying hen flocks, eleven were located in Asia. This also documents the outstanding role of Asian EMC in the dynamics of the global egg industry. The spatial pattern of the laying hen inventories in the EMC in 2017 is documented in Figure 1. Table 6 – The ten EMC with the highest absolute decrease of their laying hen inventories between 2007 and 2017 (Source: FAO database; own calculations). Country
Absolute decrease (1,000 hens)
Relative decrease (%)
Indonesia
56,277
52.2
Iran
14,200
22.7
Ukraine
12,200
11.8
Romania
8,878
17.7
Nigeria
6,000
5.0
Greece
4,021
30.9
Hungary
3,375
28.5
Bulgaria
2,201
26.6
South Africa
1,500
3.8
Czech Rep.
995
17.3
109,647
-
10 countries
30
- marketing -
Not all EMC were able to increase their laying hen flocks in the analysed decade. Table 6 shows that the ten counties with a decline of their inventories together lost 109.6 mill. hens. Five of the ten countries were located in Eastern Europe and six were EU member countries. While the transformation from conventional cages to alternative housing systems from 2012 on in the EU was the main reason for the decline in these countries, political and economic problems were the main steering factors in Ukraine and Venezuela.
1
In the maps, all 37 countries are documented, in the tables the 15 leading countries in each category. The member countries are: Argentina, Bangladesh, Brazil, Bulgaria, Chile, China, Colombia, Czech Rep., Egypt, Greece, Hungary, India, Indonesia, Iran, Israel, Korea, Rep., Malaysia, Mauritius, Mexico, Nigeria, Oman, Pakistan, Peru, Philippines, Poland, Qatar, Romania, Russia, South Africa, Saudi Arabia, Taiwan, Thailand, Turkey, UAE, Ukraine, Venezuela, Viet Nam.
NUTRITION
Proven Product Performance
Hendrix Genetics is the world’s leading breeder and distributor of white and brown laying hens. Via our balanced breeding program we breed 1st Quality Hens that produce 1st Quality Eggs. Our laying hens have proven themselves to perform in traditional and alternative production systems under different climatic conditions. Different global regions have unique conditions and require a tailored solution. We offer a regional approach for each market by providing six different layer brands: ISA, Bovans, Dekalb, Hisex, Shaver and Babcock.
layinghens.hendrix-genetics.com layinghens@hendrix-genetics.com
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31
ŠHendrix Genetics
TECHNICAL COLUMN
Increased focus on sustainability: breeding the long-life layer Genetic progress in laying hens has never been so clearly visible in the field throughout the past decades. Modern selection methods, such as genomics and fully automated measurements as well as massive investment in the expansion of our R&D program have considerably contributed to the success of the laying hens currently available.
Teun van de Braak, Product Manager Hendrix Genetics
32
More than a decade ago, we set a goal to breed the long-life layer for 2020. Our definition of a long-life layer was a hen capable of producing 500 eggs in a laying cycle of 100 weeks. Nowadays, the main reason to deplete a flock is not often related to the persistency in egg production, but because of eggshell quality that gradually goes down with age. Poor quality eggs, and especially weaker shells, can increase the costs of egg packing and customer
- technical column -
TECHNICAL COLUMN
complaints. Over the last few years, we have added focus in selection to enhance egg quality.
decreases with age), but it is also related to the physical stress on the birds when producing larger eggs.
Successfully keeping the hens to 100 weeks is no longer the exception. Egg producers from almost all over the world have been able to get the full genetic potential out of their birds. Their numbers show that early depletion wastes the genetic potential of today’s laying hens. The long-life layer can help you save costs in production, create additional profit, improve the welfare of the birds and reduce the environmental impact of egg production.
Flattening egg size is not the only way to improve the eggshell quality. A key element of the Hendrix Genetics breeding program is to measure the egg quality all the way till the end of lay. We take these measures both at the R&D farms and commercial farms in which the birds have a direct genetic relationship with each other. We test our birds in a range of locations to ensure that we consider differing diets, climates, and management factors when making selections as these can have a clear impact on bird performance.
How we select for the long-life layer By selecting for improved persistency only, we would not have been able to breed a long-life layer. Balanced breeding for all traits is the key in achieving genetic improvement all the way through the value chain. Key traits that have been present in our breeding program for de-
Besides the classical breaking strength devices, we have invested in the latest technologies in the field of vision and robotics. From every egg that is examined with our eggxaminator, we can capture over 25 high resolution images that will give us a fully in-depth insight in the eggshell quality.
“Poor quality eggs, and especially weaker shells, can increase the costs of egg packing and customer complaints. Over the last few years, we have added focus in selection to enhance egg quality. Successfully keeping the hens to 100 weeks is no longer the exception. Egg producers from almost all over the world have been able to get the full genetic potential out of their birds” cades include bird health, welfare and robustness. All these traits should be present in today’s commercial laying hens in order to keep up with the longer cycles required. This balanced trait approach requires in-depth knowledge and consideration of the bird’s physiology and her nutritional requirements at each age. It is also depends on the management system they are housed in and the reproductive status of the birds. In order to help the birds manage production for high quality eggs all the way up to 100 weeks of age, our breeding program selects for a flatter egg weight profile. The goal is still to increase the early egg size (before 30 weeks of age), but we also aim to flatten the egg size growth later in life. Flattening the egg size curve has resulted directly in high quality eggs, as continued growth in egg size can be a contributor to poor egg quality. This is not only due to the inability to deposit more shell around larger eggs (the amount of shell available to deposit around an egg
In summary Egg producers from all over the world have demonstrated that it is possible to keep our long-life layers up to the age of 100 weeks. Amazing results have been achieved all over the world with our breeds, from intensive open housed cage systems in the hot and humid areas of Brazil and the Middle America’s, all the way to the free range and organic systems in the wet Western part of Europe. In conclusion, keeping flocks longer offers clear benefits, both in terms of economics and for enhanced sustainability. It leads directly to higher welfare with fewer birds needed to produce the same number of eggs. Additionally, it saves production costs with a shorter downtime period and the pullet/once-per-cycle costs can be diluted over a much longer production period. In the end, the amazing long-life layer helps the farmer, the industry, and the planet.
- march 2020 -
33
TECHNICAL COLUMN
Groundbreaking results: the importance of deep cleaning in the fight against viruses The secondary properties of a disinfectant are key to beat aggressive viruses, like Avian Influenza
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The recent outbreak of African Swine Fever (ASF) in Asia has turned into a devastating worldwide crisis. The president of the World Organization for Animal Health, Mark Schipp, declared that around a quarter of the world’s pigs are expected to die from African swine fever. With no vaccine currently available, this deadly swine disease with high mortality rates is easily spread and gains entry into unaffected farms oftentimes on fomites and vehicles.
Thus, the application of strict biosecurity measures specific to the different swine producing sectors including thorough cleaning and disinfection protocols for all surfaces in contact with animals and their excretions are the only solution to prevent entry of the virus into susceptible farms. However, especially at the typical Asian small-scale backyard farms with an open housing system, it may be challenging to obtain a sufficient level of biosecurity. Cheng Lee, DVM and Gerwen Lammers, PhD Independent research conducted by Acura Analytical Intracare BV, Veghel, The Netherlands, info@intracare.nl
34
Effective cleaning and disinfection To disinfect without cleaning is a Sisyphean task. Many viruses has been shown to survive in feces for up to 5 days at room temperature1 and disinfectant potencies are highly reduced by organic soiling. For optimal disinfection, it is recommended to always begin with cleaning, starting with the mechanical removal of rough organic material and followed by the use of
- technical column -
TECHNICAL COLUMN
a strong cleaning agent to dissolve and remove dried, greasy and strongly adhered organic material. Pre-soaking and softening caked feces prior to using a cleaning agent helps to improve cleaning efficiencies. Being an enveloped virus, the lipid bilayer many viruses can already be disrupted by detergents like those present in Intra Foam Cleaner. This not only potentially reduces viral loads, but also weakens the virus by providing better access for a subsequent disinfectant. For terminal disinfection, it is vital to choose the most effective virucidal product. Intra Multi-Des GA is a highly concentrated formulation of the active ingredient glutaraldehyde (125 g/l), and the quarternary ammonium compounds (QACs) didecyldimethylammonium chloride (DDAC, 100 g/l) and alkyldimethylbenzylammonium chloride (ADBAC, 150 g/l). Glutaraldehyde has been shown to inactivate viruses by destroying viral membranes via protein denaturation, interfering with protein-DNA interactions required for metabolism, and inducing changes of the viral capsid (protein shell). QACs are hydrophobic molecules that cause detachment of enveloped viruses and inactivate viruses by interaction with intraviral targets and binding to the viral DNA. This explains why QAC concentrations of as low as 0.003% have been proven effective against many viruses2.
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W-80
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Optimal functionality by secondary properties It is important to realize that these excellent virucidal properties are only useful when a product is able to reach every single viral particle. Therefore, the formulation of Intra Multi-Des GA is optimized with supporting excipients to reduce its surface tension, resulting in a quadruple benefit:
Hy-Line International Email: info@hyline.com | www.hyline.com
1. Coverage of an increased surface area (Figure 1); 2. The contact between the product and the outer surface of the virus is increased, resulting in a maximum efficacy in practice (Figure 1); 3. The product is better able to penetrate rough/irregular surfaces to reach hidden virus particles (Figures 1 and 2); 4. Long-term residual activity even after evaporation of the product (Figure 3). During application of a disinfectant by spraying or fogging it is important to create a small droplet size to reach all
- march 2020 -
35
TECHNICAL COLUMN
Figure 1 – Visual representation of the difference between a normal droplet (light blue), and a droplet of Intra Multi-Des GA (dark blue) with an optimized surface tension, resulting in coverage of a much larger area and reaching each spot on irregular surfaces. The same mechanism takes place on a microscopic level (right).
corners and cracks of the surface to be treated. The finer the droplet size, the longer the disinfectant remains dispersed in the room, increasing the contact time and surface area that is reached. Upon touching the surface, a droplet has to flow homogeneously to reach a maximum surface per droplet and run freely into any cracks to reach all hidden spots (Figure 1). The pictures in Figure 2 clearly show that a bigger surface and deeper penetration is reached with Intra Multi-Des GA compared to glutaral-
dehyde and a control product that is advertised in Asia.
Long-term residual action Disinfectants may rapidly lose their activity upon drying, thereby reducing the contact time and allowing surface recontamination. This is of particular importance in areas with hot climates, like those present in Asia, since at 40 °C, up to two thirds of a sprayed liquid can evaporate within a short amount of time. The residual activity of Intra Multi-Des
Figure 2 – The droplet dispersion and penetration properties of 1% Intra Multi-Des GA, 1% glutaraldehyde and 1% of the control product into a porous material. The blue arrow indicates the large penetration distance of Intra Multi-Des GA.
36
- technical column -
GA was compared with a control product using a stamp test on a bacterial culture plate inoculated with Pseudomonas aeruginosa as a model organism. A 0.5% product solution was dried at room temperature on steel surfaces and stamped for 2 seconds on the bacteria culture plates. After 24 hours incubation, the culture plates were completely covered with bacteria, except from the area stamped with dried Intra MultiDes GA (Figure 3). This effect lasted for at least 72 hours. This clearly shows that even after evaporation Intra Multi-Des GA is able to prevent bacterial growth for the duration of at least 3 days, in contrast to a control product often found commercially in Asia that showed no residual activity after drying.
Proven efficacy against Avian Influenza and ASF According to the latest European Biocidal Product Regulations (BPR), a disinfectant is allowed to claim general virucidal efficacy when it is able to achieve a 10,000-fold reduction in the most difficult to kill Enteric Cytopathic Bovine Orphan virus (ECBO). This virus was chosen by the BPR as the reference virus for determination of biocidal virucidal efficacies based on not only in-vitro tenacity of the viruses to disinfection, but also on the principles established by Noll and Youngner (1959)3, classifying viruses into groups based on their increasing susceptibility to disinfection. This allows an end consumer to conclude that a biocide has full virucidal efficacy for all veterinary viruses when it is able to show efficacy against ECBO virus.
TECHNICAL COLUMN
Figure 3 – Bacterial culture plates covered with Pseudomonas aeruginosa after stamp test clearly showing the strong residual activity of Intra Multi-Des GA in time.
Intra Multi-Des GA was able to reach this 10,000-fold reduction within 30 minutes at a concentration of only 0.75% under the prescribed low temperature of 10 °C and in the presence of soiling. The ability of Intra Multi-Des GA to inactivate the most resistant virus also demonstrates the ability of this biocide to inactivate the weaker, lipid enveloped virus of ASF but also the Avian Influenza virus. In conclusion, Intra Multi-Des GA is the biocide of choice for protection of your farm against all kind of pathogen viruses.
Gerwen Lammers, PhD
Cheng Lee, DVM
References 1Davies,
K., Goatley, L. C., Guinat, C., Netherton, C. L., Gubbins, S., Dixon, L. K., & Reis, A. L. (2017). Survival of African Swine Fever Virus in Excretions from Pigs Experimentally Infected with the Georgia 2007/1 Isolate. Transboundary and emerging diseases, 64(2), 425–431. doi:10.1111/tbed.12381. 2Shirai, J., Kanno, T., Tsuchiya, Y., Mitsubayashi, S., & Seki, R. (2000). Effects of chlorine, iodine, and quaternary ammonium compound disinfectants on several exotic disease viruses. Journal of Veterinary Medical Science, 62(1), 85-92. 3Noll H, Younger JS, Virus-lipid interactions: the mechanism of adsorption of lipophilic viruses to water insoluble polar lipids. Virology, 1959;8: 319-343.
- march 2020 -
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37
MANAGEMENT
Footpad dermatitis in market turkey hens Bird density and bedding material relationships
Lameness and poor foot pad condition can be major issues for meat-type poultry resulting in their decreased well-being and decreased productivity. A large body of research exists for foot pad dermatitis (FPD) in broilers and a smaller subset related to turkeys. Sally L. Noll and Gabriella Furo, Department of Animal Science, University of Minnesota R. Michael Hulet, Pennsylvania University
38
While both broilers and turkeys can develop foot pad dermatitis, there are species differences in the prevalence and severity as well as differences in the production cycle. Turkeys appear to have a higher incidence and greater severity of FPD in comparison to broilers. On a 3-point scale, broilers peaked with a foot pad score of 0.25 while turkeys peaked with a score of 2.0. In 2002, using the 5-point scale and assessed at the time of processing, the average
- management -
MANAGEMENT
score for toms and hens in US industry was 2.8 and 2.6, respectively. For 2013, scores taken at processing for toms averaged 2.6. For light hen and heavy hens, FPD scores averaged 2.5 and 2.96, respectively (personal communication, Greg Hansen, CEO, Intellimetrics). The data suggest that average scores for toms in the US have stayed the same, improved slightly for the light hen, and are more severe for the heavy hen. Surveys for prevalence and incidence at the farm level for different ages of turkeys are not publicly available for the US turkey industry except for a survey of commercial tom flocks near market; however, data specific to prevalence was not available. Prevalence data from European turkey flocks have been primarily collected at processing indicating a high prevalence of FPD with moderate to severe lesions based. A few of these studies monitored the condition on the farm and indicated a high prevalence of FPD in young turkeys during brooding. Several factors have been previously identified as involved in FPD development including bedding type as related to particle size and moisture uptake, litter moisture, drinker design and management, litter depth, stocking density, and season. Grain sources and plant protein sources as soybean meal result in viscous droppings due to presence of indigestible carbohydrates and adhere to the foot pad. Increased stocking density in particular was a key factor associated with a rapid decline in litter quality associated with increased water intake by the broilers. The common link among all these factors is the interaction of the footpad with the mixture of bedding and excreta especially in relation to deposition of moisture in the litter through the excretory system or through other environmental means. As in broilers, increased litter moisture is associated with FPD development in turkeys. A significant body of work has been put together by researchers in the UK as well as earlier research by Martland et al. (1984) for turkeys. The UK experimental model induces FPD in a 6 day time frame by keeping litter moisture at 70%. Litter is described as being soggy or very wet. In another study of FPD and adding moisture to the litter, foot pad score was minimized when litter moisture was less 30% and when turkeys of different ages were placed on wet litter (70% moisture), there did not appear to be an age susceptibility to development of FPD.
An inter-relationship of bedding material and stocking density of market turkey hens on foot pad dermatitis was demonstrated recently. A study was conducted to investigate the effects of turkey hen density (low (LD), medium (MD), and high stocking density (HD) of 4.2, 5.3 and 7 hens/m2) and two bedding (B) materials (pine shavings, PS and giant miscanthus grass, MG) in a factorial arrangement on severity and prevalence of FPD in turkey hens. The study was conducted at Penn State University where Hybrid poults (1056) were placed into 24 pens for rearing. At 14 weeks of age, a composite footpad score (FPS) (increasing severity 0, 1 or 2) for each hen in the study was obtained without cleaning the pads. At 14 weeks, FPS averaged 1.1 and the prevalence of hens with scores of 0, 1, and 2 was 21, 51, and 28%, respectively. Hens reared on MG had higher FPS compared to those on PS (1.43 vs 0.71). As D increased, FPS increased from 0.77 to 1.27 at highest D. The effect of D on the prevalence of hens with a zero FPS was dependent on bedding type. The proportion of hens reared on PS with zero FPS was 69, 30 and 19% at 4.2, 5.3 and 7 hens/m2, respectively, while for hens reared on MG, no difference was detected among D (7, 0.6, and 0.5% prevalence of 0 at 4.2, 5.3 and 7 hens/m2, respectively). Litter moisture at 14 weeks of age was greater for MG as compared to PS (49% vs 56%) and litter moisture increased as stocking density increased (48.4, 51 and 57.6% for LD, MD, and HD, respectively). The lowest measured litter moisture was 44% for hens reared at LD and on pine shavings. A Relatively small increase in litter moisture reduced the prevalence of zero FPS in pine shavings as result of increasing litter moisture due to increasing moisture content (44, 47.5, and 55% litter moisture at LD, MD, and HD, respectively). For MG, the litter moisture increased from 52 to 55 to 60% with increasing stocking density. The results indicated that small increases in litter moisture greatly increased footpad severity scores in market turkey hens assessed at 14 weeks of age. Bedding material modified the footpad score, with litter moisture in excess of 52% resulting in a majority of turkeys having footpad lesions.
- march 2020 -
References are available on request From the Proceedings of 2019 Midwest Poultry Federation Convention
39
NUTRITION
Ideal amino acid profile and chicken gut disturbance There is considerable interest in the development of low protein diets with supplemental amino acids for broiler chickens due to economic, environmental and bird welfare advantages. However, under commercial feeding conditions, chickens are exposed to challenges of infectious or non-infectious origin.
Šextension.msstate.edu
Y.M. Bao
Reduced protein diets may result in amino acids being redistributed away from growth and production processes toward intestinal cells involved in immune and inflammatory responses and an unbalanced supply of amino acids in the diet can be deleterious to the chicken gut immune system. Therefore, an ideal balance of dietary amino acids (AA) is crucial for broiler chicken gut health, particularly under an antibiotic-free production system. There is considerable interest in the development of low protein diets balanced with supplemental amino acids for broiler chickens due to economic, environmental and bird welfare advantages. However, under commercial feeding conditions, chickens are exposed to various challenges of infectious and non-infectious origin. For challenges of in-
40
fectious origin, even without any clinical signs of disease, animals affected by chronic subclinical disease or intestinal parasites use nutrients less efficiently for production than healthy animals. Challenges of non-infectious origin such as heat stress, mycotoxins and other anti-nutritional factors also have impacts on nutrient digestibility. Therefore, it may be necessary to set the intestinal requirements of some amino acids higher than recommended in order to avoid compromising the immune system. It is reported that reduced protein diets may result in amino acids being redistributed away from growth and production processes, toward intestinal cells involved in immune and inflammatory responses. Further, reduced-protein diets may change amino acid availability and promote negative interactions among amino acids. In addition, an unbalanced supply of
- nutrition -
NUTRITION
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amino acids in the diet can be deleterious to the immune system. Thus, an ideal balance of AA is crucial for broiler chicken gut health in particular if birds are reared without antibiotics.
Amino acid nutrition and disturbance of intestinal function Necrotic enteritis (NE) is a multifactorial, bacterial disease caused by Clostridium perfringens (CP) which produces a variety of extracellular toxins and invasive enzymes in the broiler chicken gut. It is widely believed that coccidiosis, wheat or barley-based diets with a high proportion of fish meal and removal of in-feed antibiotics are major disposing factors. Due to a damaged intestinal mucosa, subclinical NE usually results in poor body weight gain associated with reduced feed intake, and it is assumed that needs for some functional amino acids for immunity will be met by mobilizing skeletal muscle protein. Compared to soybean meal, addition of fish meal might result in deficiency in arginine (Arg), leucine (Leu), isoleucine (Ile), aspartic acid (Asp), histine (His), phenylalanine (Phe) and glutamic acid (Glu) (Figure 1, adapted from Lemme et al., 2004). Compared to maize, use of wheat or barley might lead to a diet deficient in alanine (Ala), Leu and Asp (Figure 2, adapted from Lemme et al., 2004). Adding Arg has been demonstrated to reduce intestinal mucosal dis-
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Figure 2 – Digestible AA profile in wheat, barley and maize.
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NUTRITION
days Considering that the intestinal immune system is responsible for initiating and propagating responses to commensal and pathogenic microorganisms, ideal AA profile may play an important role in alleviating chicken gut disturbance. Figure 3 – The dietary AA profile in Table 2 compared with Cobb 500 recommendation.
Ideal AA profile for broiler chickens
Figure 4 – The dietary AA profile compared with Rostagno’s recommendation.
ruption during a coccidial challenge. Leu, Ile, Asp and Glu play vital roles in the metabolism and function of leucocytes and lymphocytes. Glutamine is important for maintaining the integrity of the gut barrier and the structure of the intestinal mucosa. Increasing total methionine levels from 0.35 to 1.2% in the diet of chickens infected with Newcastle Disease virus markedly enhanced immune responses: T-cell proliferation, plasma IgG levels, leucocyte migration and antibody titres. Furthermore, threonine (Thr), Arg and Glu may help to minimize over-activation of the innate
immune system and modulate the intestinal microbiota. It is noteworthy that, although AA are required for the synthesis of a variety of specific proteins to sustain normal immunocompetence and protect the animal from a variety of diseases, an imbalanced supply of AA in the diet can be deleterious to the immune system. Recently, in an NE challenge trial conducted at the University of New England (UNE), challenged at the age of 9 days, birds fed diets formulated with an ideal AA profile completely recovered at the age of 35
Table 1 – The feed formulation of a typical wheat-soybean meal-based diet (Wu et al., 2015). Ingredients
Starter
Ingredients
Starter
Wheat
60.3%
Lysine.HCL
0.27%
Soybean meal
24.2%
Methionine
0.21%
Canola meal (solvent)
9.6%
Threonine
0.03%
Meat meal
1.7%
Choline Cl 70%
0.11%
Canola oil
1.8%
Mineral premix
0.075
Limestone
1.1%
Vitamin Premix
0.05%
Xylanase
0.005%
Salt
0.31%
Sodium bicarbonate
0.20%
42
- nutrition -
The ideal AA profile, with AA in ratio to lysine, was first proposed and tested in broiler chickens by Baker and Han (1994). Because the standardized ileal digestibility (SID) values of AAs are more likely to be additive in mixed diets, most ideal AA profiles for broiler chickens are provided based on SID values. Although there are no significant differences in AA ratios to SID lys among those ideal AA profiles, dietary SID Lys concentration will have strong impact on the order of dietary limiting AA. For a typical wheat-soybean mealbased diet shown in Table 1, 1.20% SID Lys was used to formulate the starter diet. Obviously, this diet perfectly matched the ideal AA profile recommended for Cobb 500 chickens (Figure 3). However, compared with the ideal AA profile recommended by Rostagno (Figure 4), almost all essential amino acids were deficient in this diet, potentially disturbing gut health of the bird. In conclusion, an ideal AA profile in broiler chicken diets may alleviate gut disturbance. When dietary Lys concentration is increased, other essential AA concentrations also need to be increased accordingly. From the Proceedings of the 2019 Australian Poultry Science Symposium
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Endogenous enzyme activities and energy utilization of broilers fed sorghum-based diets supplemented with phytase and carbohydrases This study was conducted to evaluate the endogenous enzyme activities and energy utilization of broiler chickens fed sorghum-based diets supplemented with phytase and carbohydrases.
M. Al-Qahtani1, K.I. Al-Qahtani1, E.U. Ahiwe¹, H.J. Gausi¹, M.E. Abdallh¹, E.P. Chang’a¹, M.M. Ari1, M.R. Bedford² and P.A. Iji¹,3 ¹School of Environmental and Rural Science, University of New England, Armidale, Australia ²AB Vista, Woodstock Court, Marlborough, UK ³ College of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry, Fiji National University, Koronivia, Fiji
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The birds were housed in cages in climate-controlled rooms. The jejunum and pancreas were collected at 10 and 24 d for analysis of endogenous digestive enzyme activities. Birds were also sampled at hatch and 24 d and analysed for gross energy, fat and crude protein contents. The data were used to calculate heat production, net energy of production and efficiency of energy utilization. There were improvements in digestive enzyme activities and utilization of energy, in terms of metabolisable energy and net energy of production (NEp), suggesting the suitability of the exogenous test enzymes for use in sorghum-based diets. A recent study on Australian sorghum by Selle et al. (2017) reported that sorghum produced in Australia is used almost exclusively for feed, especially cattle, pigs and poultry. The objective of the present research is to assess the response of broiler chickens to diets based on sorghum, when supplemented with a combination of enzymes, targeting different substrates. A total of 648 male and female Ross 308 broiler chickens was randomly assigned in a 3 × 2 × 2 factorial arrangement of treatments [3 doses of phytase none, standard (100 mg/kg) and superdose (300 mg/kg)] × 2 doses of xylanase and of β-glucanase [none and standard (100 mg/kg)] in a completely randomised design. Each of the 12 treatments was replicated 6 times, with 9 birds per replicate.
- nutrition -
NUTRITION
The diets were fed ad libitum from 0 to 35 days in 3 phases – starter as crumble (1-10 d), grower as pellet (11-24 d) and finisher as pellet (2535 d). The test diets contained 60, 64 and 68% of sorghum in the starter, grower and finisher respectively and were formulated to meet the specifications recommended for the Ross 308 broiler chickens. A sub-sample of 10-day-old chicks was euthanised by cervical dislocation, minced and analysed to provide baseline data on body composition: gross energy, crude protein and fat contents. At d 24 two birds per pen were randomly selected, euthanised by cervical dislocation and processed (chopped, minced and freeze-dried) and used to determine carcass energy, protein and fat. On d 10 and d 24 one bird was randomly selected from each cage, electrically stunned and euthanised by cervical dislocation. These were dissected to obtain the whole pancreas and anterior jejunum (4-5 cm long) and used to determine the endogenous enzyme activities. Another 2 birds were similarly slaughtered at d 24 and processed as described for the birds collected at d 0, to determine the energy, protein and fat contents of the intact carcass. The data from d 24 were related to the baseline data obtained from the day-old chicks, to calculate the heat production (HP), NEp and efficiency of utilization of metabolisable energy. Between d 25 and d 35 birds were fed finisher diets to measure meat parts yield. A general linear model procedure was used to analyse the collected data (Minitab Inc., 2013). There was an interaction (P<0.003) between phytase, xylanase and β-glucanase on chymotrypsin activ-
ity at d 10. Addition of phytase increased (P<0.02) pancreatic protein content, trypsin activity and general proteolytic activity. At d 24 pancreatic protein content and enzyme activities (chymotrypsin, trypsin and general proteolytic activity) also responded (P<0.02) to interactions between phytase and
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NUTRITION
β-glucanase. General proteolytic activity was increased (P<0.004) in the groups supplemented with phytase. At d 10, there was no interaction between the factors on the activities of jejunal membrane-bound enzymes but the activities of maltase, sucrase and alkaline phosphatase were increased (P<0.004) with phytase inclusion. Phytase supplementation also increased (P<0.01) the activities of jejunal sucrase and aminopeptidase at d 24. At d 24, there was an interaction (P<0.03) between phytase, xylanase and β-glucanase on apparent metabolisable energy (AME) content. The interaction between xylanase and β-glucanase on energy retained as fat and as protein and on efficiency of metabolisable energy use for lipid retention were significant (P<0.01). Addition of phytase to the diets increased (P<0.001) the NEp, AME, energy retained as fat, energy retained as protein, and the efficiency of metabolisable energy for energy, lipid and protein retention. The efficiency of utilization of metabolisable energy for energy retention was also increased (P<0.05) with β-glucanase supplementation.
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The test enzymes are suitable for use in sorghum-based diets and can be increased the enzyme activities in jejunal and pancreas. Their effects on energy use warrant this recommendation. Acknowledgement: Authors would like to thank AB Vista, UK and UNE for providing research funds.
References Aviagen. (2014) Ross 308 Broiler chickens nutrition specifications. Retrieved from http://en.aviagen.com/tech-center/ download/12/Ross-308-Broiler-Nutrition-Specs-2014r17-EN. pdf?k=73ed714787d516b8d492e15ab8999943e2532b64. Minitab Inc. (2013) Minitab ® Statistical Package, Minitab Inc., State College PA, USA. Selle PH, Moss AF, Truong HH, Khoddami A, Cadogan DJ, Godwin ID & Liu SY (2017). Animal Nutrition 4: 17-30.
- nutrition -
From the Proceedings of the 2019 Australian Poultry Science Symposium
NUTRITION
- march 2020 -
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How do Coccidiosis challenges influence lipid digestibility and energy utilization? Coccidiosis continues to be one of the most pervasive and economically detrimental diseases in commercial poultry production. Controlling this enteric disease is an even greater challenge for poultry producers adopting production systems in which ionophore anticoccidial drugs are excluded to meet customer specifications for various product labels pertaining to reduced or no antibiotic use.
Under such systems, Coccidiosis control methods include chemical anticoccidial drugs that are prone to resistance, live Eimeria oocyst vaccines, and a plethora of phytogenic or naturally derived products that vary widely in their mode of action and efficacy against Eimeria. Protective immunity established by live Eimeria vaccines is dependent upon oocyst cycling and a mild infection that peaks at approximately 2 weeks post-hatch in broilers. Alyson Gautier and Samuel J. Rochell
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Naturally occurring or vaccine induced subclinical Coccidiosis is not only damaging to
- veterinary science -
nutrient utilization and performance during this period, but it can also predispose broilers to necrotic enteritis, an enteric disease associated with proliferation of Clostridium perfringens. As such, a better understanding of nutrient utilization during periods of subclinical Coccidiosis should reveal strategies to support bird performance and minimize availability of nutrients to Clostridium in the lower gastrointestinal tract. Recent work in our laboratory has aimed to characterize the impact of a Coccidiosis vaccine challenge model on nutrient utiliza-
VETERINARY SCIENCE
tion in floor-reared broilers. This approach facilitates Eimeria cycling following oral gavage of birds with 1 to 3 times the number of vaccinal oocysts recommended by the vaccine manufacturer immediately post-hatch to more closely reflect field conditions when compared with single, acute Coccidiosis challenges administered to broilers reared in battery cages. An initial experiment using this model showed that the effects of Coccidiosis on nutrient digestibility were most apparent at 12 d post-hatch, whereby nitrogen, starch, and ether extract (i.e., lipid; EE) digestibility were reduced (P<0.01) by 5.2, 3.1, and 9.7 percentage units, respectively, in vaccine-challenged birds compared with unvaccinated birds fed a chemical coccidiostat (Gautier et al., 2018). By 16 d post-hatch, nitrogen and starch digestibility were unaffected by vaccination, whereas EE digestibility remained depressed (P<0.05) by 5.1 percentage units. A subsequent experiment was conducted in which three starter diets with increasing concentrations of soybean oil were fed to broilers from 0 to 18 d post-hatch to account for the predicted loss in energy/lipid utilization due to vaccination (Gautier et al., unpublished). The increase in feed conversion ratio during the starter period due to Coccidiosis vaccination was greater for birds fed the increased soybean oil diets compared with those fed the control diet, indicating that the additional oil was actually detrimental to nutrient utilization in the vaccinated birds. Lipid digestion and absorption are relatively complex processes that involve emulsification of triglycerides by bile salts in the lumen, cleavage of fatty acids from triglycerides by pancreatic lipases, micelle formation of fatty acids and bile salts, fatty acid absorption, and
re-esterification of fatty acids with glycerol and lipoprotein (i.e. portomicron) formation within the enterocyte. It is currently unknown which of these processes are most impacted during Coccidiosis. Impaired lipid digestibility will certainly reduce absorption of fat-soluble vitamins, including vitamin D, which will in turn influence calcium and phosphorus absorption. Increased digesta lipid content may also reduce the absorption of calcium via intestinal soap formation, and excess calcium has been suggested to be a predisposing dietary factor for necrotic enteritis (Paiva et al., 2013). Furthermore, while extensive research has addressed the effects of undigested protein and non-starch polysaccharides on broiler gastrointestinal health and microbiome, very little work has sought to understand how undigested lipid affects these factors in broilers. Therefore, ongoing research in our laboratory is investigating mechanisms of impaired lipid utilization during Coccidiosis and practical nutrition strategies that may ameliorate these effects.
References Gautier, A. E., J. D. Latorre, P. Matsler, and S. J. Rochell. 2018. Longitudinal characterization of Coccidiosis control methods on nutrient utilization, oocyst excretion, and plasma carotenoid concentrations in male broilers. Poult. Sci. 97(E-Suppl. 1):29 (Abstr.) Paiva, D. M., C. L. Walk, and A. P. McElroy. 2013. Influence of dietary calcium level, calcium source, and phytase on bird performance and mineral digestibility during a natural necrotic enteritis episode. Poult. Sci. 92: 3125-3133.
From the Proceedings of the 2019 Midwest Poultry Federation Convention
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Get the most from your diagnostic laboratory A field perspective
You notice the mortality is up this morning in one of your brooder houses. Your first thought might be “better take some birds to the lab.” So, you put 4-5 birds in a box and set them in the back of your truck. After lunch you drop them off at the lab with a submission form that says, “mortality up” or “sick birds.” We’ve all done this, or something very similar. We’re setting ourselves up for disappointment and selling our labs short. David V. Rives, DVM, Dipl. ACPV Senior Technical Services Veterinarian, Zoetis
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Your company may have its own diagnostic lab, or you may use outside labs (state, university, or private) or both. In any case, it’s important to take full advantage of their capabilities to insure you get the most information possible. Whether you’re submitting blood samples for routine pre-slaughter AI checks or live birds for a full workup, there are several things to keep
- veterinary science -
VETERINARY SCIENCE
in mind that will help maximize your results. We’re going to talk about three areas to concentrate on: communication, sample collection, and data management. We all know communication is the foundation of any relationship and it’s important to develop a good relationship with your lab(s). Get to know the folks who process your samples, run the tests, and report the results. You might not get to meet them all, but at least try to know their names and a little about them. Let them know you appreciate what they’re doing. They often work after hours and on holidays to get you timely results. Also, try to let them know what you’re looking for. Is this submission a one-time diagnostic case, or are you trying to monitor a trend over time? Find out which tests your primary lab is comfortable doing and identify other labs for more specialized testing. Your company lab may do a great job with serology and bacteriology, but you may need to send samples elsewhere for virus isolation or histopathology. It’s also important to be familiar with the labs’ fee schedules. It may be less expensive to submit live birds and request additional tests than to submit tracheal swabs for a specific PCR. Find out what samples and how many are required for each test. Don’t assume that a tissue sample or swab can be used to run multiple tests. Determine how the samples should be shipped. Samples for some tests may need to be on dry ice while others may be fine with cold packs. Tissues for histopathology should go into formalin as soon as possible to preserve as much of the detail as possible. Some labs may be fine receiving clotted blood samples,
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while others would rather have the serum separated. Be sure to provide as much information as possible with your submissions (at least everything the lab asks for). It can also be very helpful to email pictures of what you’re actually seeing in the field. This will allow for a better report from the lab and make it easier for you to organize the results. Organizing your lab results can be quite a challenge. Chances are you’re receiving results from multiple labs in a variety of formats. You may be getting histograms depicting serology results, tables showing bacterial isolates and their antibiotic sensitivity patterns, and paragraphs describing lesions seen on histopathology. These reports are most likely PDF files so, even if they are emailed to you, you can’t do much with the information. You can print them out and file them in the appropriate drawer or even categorize them electronically. Still, it’s difficult to correlate them with flock performance and follow health trends for a flock or farm over time. Ultimately, we need to have all this information in a data base we can easily query for specific relationships and trends. However, re-entering all this information can be daunting and is often left undone. We end up with a lot of reports that may have answered our initial questions but could also provide much more useful information down the road if managed properly. References are available on request From the Proceedings of the 2019 Midwest Poultry Federation Convention
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Resources and tools to write a good biosecurity plan Poultry industries in the United States (U.S.) have been in a unique situation after the 2014-2015 highly pathogenic Avian Influenza (HPAI) outbreak. Analysis and epidemiology of the outbreak published in the USDA final report indicated most cases were introduced by farm-to-farm spread.
Abby Neu, MS, University of Minnesota Extension
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Increased biosecurity within a system and on-farm is a logical solution to preventing or reducing a future introduction of HPAI. As a result, the poultry industries and raised-for-release game birds are embarking in a completely new regulatory process that can, and will, set a precedence for universal biosecurity practices in all of animal agriculture. Through the National Poultry Improvement Plan (NPIP), poultry is the first in animal agriculture to require a written biosecurity plan in order to be eligible for indemnity for any future incident of HPAI in the U.S. Further information about how, and why, NPIP Biosecurity Plans, and their biennial
- veterinary science -
VETERINARY SCIENCE
audit, have become required for a portion of poultry operations can be found online at www.PoultryImprovement. org or from your processor or attending veterinarian. It is human nature to stray away from talking about, or planning for, potentially devastating events. A Foreign Animal Disease (FAD) outbreak, like HPAI, is justifiably one of those occasions. However, writing a biosecurity plan is not only to help you prepare for an outbreak, but also a way to help you, and those you employ, practice standardized principles every time you enter a farm premise to care for or manage birds. Your biosecurity
(if you have them) are going to maintain. Extension personnel worked in partnership with the Minnesota Board of Animal Health to develop six recording keeping templates to use as a guide, or a starting point. If writing things down in a pocket notebook, or on a wall calendar, works for you, fantastic! You are keeping record of your farm activities, and that is what is important. Those records will need to be included in your biosecurity plan audit documents. The USDA through the Center of Food Security & Public Health at Iowa State University released their own com-
“However, writing a biosecurity plan is not only to help you prepare for an outbreak, but also a way to help you, and those you employ, practice standardized principles every time you enter a farm premise to care for or manage birds. Your biosecurity plan is simply a written form of the work and precautions you perform every day”
plan is simply a written form of the work and precautions you perform every day. Farms that meet the annual production rates have until August of 2020 to successfully complete their initial audit. There are several resources available to help you navigate the process of writing your biosecurity in order to have a successful, foundational biosecurity plan and audit. The first resource is an online learning center created by the University of Minnesota Extension. There are NPIP documents, record-keeping templates, explanations of each biosecurity principle, and how-to tips for creating your written plan included in this resource. The learning center can be accessed at www.z.umn.edu/NPIP. A main menu allows easy access to any document or module at any time throughout your navigation. First, become familiar with official NPIP Biosecurity Documents. Direct links to NPIP will provide you with official documents and processes. A six-minute video is provided to explain how to get started. Record keeping templates are available as a module in the UMN learning center. Record keeping is a large component of an effective biosecurity plan and is a necessary part of the NPIP audit. The key to successful record keeping is having a system that you and your employees
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prehensive resource in December 2018 for those that prefer more in-depth information. The website content is based on a self-assessment of biosecurity on poultry farms, directed by the NPIP standards. This compiled information, found at www.PoultryBiosecurity.org, includes guidance documents for writing a biosecurity plan, how to document biosecurity, signage on your premises and training materials. A popular feature of this resource is the ability to complete a fill-in-the-blank biosecurity plan. A third resource is the Poultry Disease Planning Tool: originally launched only in Minnesota in 2016, this tool has been expanded and is available nation-wide. This tool was developed to be an easy to use, universally accessible online tool to reach farmers and better prepare them for emergencies. The goal of the tool is to allow farmers to make site-specific profiles that record and organize information that is needed during an emergency. Each site profile is highly secure and includes farm location, equipment available on site, mapping functions and other necessary information needed by first responders. Visit www.PoultryDiseasePlanning.com to get started. One of the added features is a biosecurity planning module that will help producers plan and implement biosecurity on their premises and provide a link between responders should there be an emergency on site. Using the Poultry Disease Planning Tool will allow a user to input all information regularly. With a few clicks and
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appropriate authorization, the tool will send a formatted biosecurity plan directly to the OSA for a biennial audit. Writing your biosecurity plan and preparing for an NPIP Biosecurity Plan Audit is not a task that can be done in a dayâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s time. It will take time to collect, organize and prepare materials satisfactorily to pass an audit. If you have yet to begin the process, I challenge you to begin by monthâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s end to familiarize yourself with the 14 principles. Any of the resources mentioned here are suitable at providing information you need to proceed. To make the work more digestible, work on one principle at a time. Provide details of your present procedures and tasks for each, and be certain to answer each of the questions listed in blue text on the NPIP Biosecurity Principles Audit Guidelines. The actual audit of your biosecurity plan will differ state to state. Take the time to learn what needs to be included in your biosecurity plan. Make the time to write a thoughtful plan and provide supporting documents. Use the resources available to optimize the effectiveness of your biosecurity plan and to ensure the success of your foundational NPIP Biosecurity Plan Audit. References are available on request From the Proceedings of 2019 Midwest Poultry Federation Convention
- veterinary science -
VETERINARY SCIENCE
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Reduction of Salmonella and Campylobacter on raw poultry In the United States, poultry is the most highly consumed meat and its consumption has grown steadily over the past twenty years. Aubrey F. Mendonรงa Associate Professor/Food Safety Microbiologist Iowa State University
Introduction The poultry industry has witnessed changes in consumer preferences from whole birds to chicken parts. For example in 1962, about 83% of broilers were sold as whole birds with 15% sold as parts. In contrast, by 2009, 12% of broilers were marketed as whole birds and 42% as parts. To date this trend has continued and will most likely increase as consumers demand for more read-to-cook and easy-to-prepare food products. The increasing consumer demand for chicken parts has signaled the poultry industry to increase production of those poultry products which require more handling for
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their preparation. This in turn can increase the risk of cross-contamination with pathogenic microorganisms such as Salmonella enterica and Campylobacter jejuni. Those pathogens are usually carried in the intestinal tract of poultry and are among the leading causes of bacterial foodborne disease and disease burden costs annually in the U.S. For example, the disease burden costs linked to Salmonella and Campylobacter are estimated at $4.4 and $1.5 billion, respectively. Also, the increasing consumption of poultry parts presents a higher risk of food-borne illness to consumers who might mishandle those raw products. Based on sampling results for USDA, FSIS-regulated products tested during January 1 to December 31, 2018, data on the estimated the percentage of raw chicken parts testing positive for Salmonella and Campylobacter are available. The data indicated that 26.26% of chicken parts (legs, breast and wings) were positive for Campylobacter whereas, other parts (including neck parts) were 53.27% positive for Salmonella. Also, the prevalence of Salmonella on legs, breast and wings was 12.84%. In an earlier report the percent positive levels of Salmonella and Campylobacter on raw chicken parts were recorded. Chicken neck parts exhibited the highest extent of contamination (55% positive) for Salmonella and Campylobacter. Chicken breast had the lowest percent positive results (16.1%) for Campylobacter with 13.5% positive for skinless breast and 25.6% positive for breast with skin. As previously stated it is highly likely that chicken parts become further contaminated during the whole carcass dismemberment and deboning processes. In this regard, it is crucial to apply intervention steps that will prevent or minimize the risk of microbial contamination during the production of poultry parts.
Current decontamination practices and limitations Several poultry processing plants are now using a postchill intervention step to decrease levels of microbial on raw poultry parts. The use of a parts decontamination
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PROCESSING
tank to decrease bacterial contamination on chicken parts following the cut-up process has become prevalent. In that tank the chicken parts undergo a short exposure time to an antimicrobial solution. Some of the antimicrobial solutions that can be used to achieve decontamination include chlorine (hypochlorous acid), peracetic acid, acidified sodium chlorite, chlorine dioxide, trisodium phosphate, cetylpyridinium chloride, and certain organic acids. To date chemical antimicrobial interventions are only modestly effective in decreasing microbial contamination on raw poultry. The common issue related to those chemical antimicrobials is that they are all diluted in water to allow application of desired concentrations. Water is a poor wetting agent for fatty surfaces such as poultry skin; therefore, it is challenging for any water-based antimicrobial to adequately wet chicken or turkey skin to fully contact bacteria. In this respect substantial amounts of bacteria can survive attached to fatty surfaces. This problem is further exacerbated when bacteria are located in feather follicles, crevices, folds or in fat smears on the poultry skin. The inaccessibility of pathogens within those areas of skin would also limit the killing effectiveness of water-based sanitizers.
Strategy for improving effectiveness of decontaminating solutions The antimicrobial effectiveness of water-based decontaminating solutions could potentially be improved by use of surfactants to lower the surface tension between the hydrophilic antimicrobial solution and the hydrophobic poultry skin. Additionally, fat emulsifying ability of surfactants could also expose pathogens to adequate wetting by the antimicrobial solution.
Depending on the interactions of poultry skin surfaces with bacteria, surfactants may disrupt such interactions and allow very good contact between the water-based antimicrobial and the target pathogen. Some researchers have demonstrated in broth systems, on frankfurters and on broiler skin, significantly improved antibacterial effect or organic acid solutions in combination with the surfactant such sodium lauryl sulfate (SLS). Other similar enhancements in pathogen inactivation have been reported antimicrobial/surfactant mixtures involving incorporation of Tween 80 compared to use of the specific antimicrobial alone. It is important to ensure cost effectiveness of use of those surfactants before they can be adopted by the poultry industry. Certain saponins produced by some plants also possess surfactant properties and are appropriate natural substitutes for synthetic surfactants. This is important considering the rapidly increasing consumer demand for more natural, environmentally friendly additives for use in foods. Saponin-containing extracts from Yucca schidgera and Quillaja saponaria have FDA GRAS status and are approved for use as an ingredient in food and beverages. Those natural extracts are relatively inexpensive and might be good candidates for use as surfactants to facilitate contact of water-based antimicrobials with poultry skin. There is a crucial need for further research to investigate ways for optimally incorporating surfactants in water-based antimicrobial solutions used for decontaminating raw poultry. From the Proceedings of the 2019 Midwest Poultry Federation Convention
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New method to detect woody breast fillets USPOULTRY and the USPOULTRY Foundation announced the completion of a funded research project at Auburn University in Auburn, Alabama, in which researchers found a new method to detect woody breast fillets. The research was made possible in part by an endowing Foundation gift from Claxton Poultry and is part of the Association’s comprehensive research program encompassing all phases of poultry and egg production and processing. A complete report, along with information on other Association research, may be obtained by going to USPOULTRY’s website: www.uspoultry.org. Project #708: Developing and validating a Bioelectrical Impedance Index for rapid detection of woody breast fillets (Dr. Amit Morey, Department of Poultry Science, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama). Dr. Amit Morey in the Department of Poultry Science at Auburn University recently completed a research project where he evaluated a hand-held bioelectric impedance device for its ability to detect broiler breast fillets affected with the woody breast condition. The device was found to be able to successfully differentiate severely affected fillets from normal fillets by analyzing the electrical properties of the meat. This technique may be used by plant personnel to more accurately sort breast fillets.
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The bioelectrical properties of breast fillets are significantly affected by woody breast myopathy and hence can be used to detect woody breast. The project was aimed at developing and validating a hand-held bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) tool for rapid detection of woody breast fillets. Woody breast fillets affected to varying degrees of severity were analyzed using the bioelectrical impedance analysis, proximate composition (protein, moisture and fat) and texture analysis. BIA measurements were taken at three different locations on the fillet to determine if there were differences in the electrical properties due to position. The BIA was then used to determine the accuracy of detection of the woody breast fillets by plant personnel. Although there were no corresponding significant differences in moisture content or moisture lost during cooking, total body water was significantly higher in severely affected breast fillets than in normal breast fillets. This may explain the differences seen in electrical properties of severely affected woody breast fillets.
BIA can be successfully used to detect normal fillets and severely affected fillets but does not differentiate between mildly and moderately affected fillets. When the BIA tool was used to evaluate fillets, which had been sorted by plant personnel into severely affected fillets and normal breast fillets, it indicated an accuracy of 89.80% by plant personnel in identifying the severely affected woody breast fillets. Approximately 10% of woody breast fillets were categorized as normal by plant personnel. The bioelectrical impedance analysis method can be used effectively to differentiate between normal and severely affected woody breast meat. Quality assurance personnel can use it as an efficient hand-held system to ensure the quality of meat being sent to the customers. This method can reduce human error in sorting breast fillets. Companies can use this device to determine the percentage of normal and severely affected woody breast fillets and track trends by season, farm or management practices. Genetics companies can potentially use this technology to help identify woody breast in the genetic selection process.
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CODAF Poultry Equipment Manufacturers Via Cavour, 74/76 • 25010 Isorella (Brescia), ITALY Tel. +39 030 9958156 • Fax: +39 030 9952810 info@codaf.net • www.codaf.net
www.bigdutchman.de
BELTS AND ROPES
FOR AVICULTURAL USE Manure removal belts and
Manure belt with holes for drying systems
POULTRY EQUIPMENT
The No. 1 worldwide
Via Garibaldi, 54 – 26040 Scandolara Ravara (CR) Italy Tel. (+39) 0375/95135 • Fax. (+39) 0375/95169 info@barbieri-belts.com • www.barbieri-belts.com
TURNKEY PROJECTS POULTRY INTEGRATED PROJECTS POULTRY EQUIPMENT FOR BROILERS AND LAYERS AVIARY SYSTEMS Officine Facco & C. S.p.A. Via Venezia, 30 - Marsango (PD) Italy
Tel. +39 049 9698111 - Fax +39 049 9630605 | www.facco.net - facco@facco.net
PREFABRICATED METAL PLANTSspazio55x45-facco.indd for aviculture, livestock farming and industry
Officine Meccaniche
VETTORELLO LUCIANO 35040 Casale di Scodosia (PD) • Italia • via Nuova, 1515 Tel. +39 0429 847062 • Fax +39 0429 848315 luciano@officinevettorello.it • www.officinevettorello.it
BD Ad Zootecnica 55x95 10-13.indd 1
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Equipment
POULTRY EQUIPMENT MANUFACTURERS
GmbH & Co. KG
Dassendaler Weg 13 • D-47665 Sonsbeck (Germany) T: +49 (0) 2838 912-0 • F: +49 (0) 2838 2791 info@specht-tenelsen.de • www.specht-tenelsen.de
VALLI spa • via Cimatti, 2 • 47010 Galeata (FC) • Italy T: +39 0543 975 311 • F: +39 0543 981 400 E: info@valli-italy.com • I: www.valli-italy.com
PRODUZIONI CHIAVI IN MANO ATTREZZATURA AVI CUNICOLA
Housing equipment for breeders, layers and broilers.
MBE srl
LUBING SISTEM SRL
via delle Fornaci 88/A 60044 Fabriano (AN) - Italy Tel. 0732/627167 - info@mbefabriano.it - www.mbefabriano.it
www.vencomatic.com
Automatic rollaway nests Plastic slats Aviary systems Rearing systems Broiler systems Manure belts Manure drying systems Emission
Harselaarseweg 32, 3771 MB Barneveld, Holland Tel.: +31(0)342 42 70 00 Fax: +31 (0)342 42 70 01 Website: www.jpe.org E-mail: info@jpe.org
THE BEST FOR YOUR EGGS!
via San Lorenzo, 9b 35010 Campo San Martino (PD), Italy Ph: +39.049.9620774 Web: www.flexy.it - Email: info@flexy.it
Drinking systems for chicks, broilers, breeders, layers, ducks, turkeys, rabbits and pigs Conveyor systems for egg collection Climate systems: Pad Climate (evaporative cooling for paper or plastic pads) and Top Climate (with high pressure nozzles)
Impex Barneveld B.V. P.O. Box 20 • 3770 AA Barneveld • Holland T: 31 (0) 342 41 66 41 • F: 31 (0) 342 41 28 26 E: info@impex.nl • I: www.impex.nl
via Marco Polo, (Z.I.) Campodarsego, Padova Italy tel. + fax + info@lubing.it lubingsystem.com www.lubingsystem.com
UPCOMING EVENTS 2020 March, 25 to 26 APF Poultry Nutrition Symposium Bangkok International Trade & Expo Centre (BITEC) Bangkok, Thailand For information contact: Nasir Mukhtar Email: nmukhtar@uaar.edu.pk
June, 2 to 6
October, 21 to 22
Belagro and Belfarm 2020
Poultry Africa
Minsk, Belarus
Kigali Convention Centre Kigali Rwanda
For information contact: Elena Fyodorova Chief of Foreign Economic Relations Department JSC "Minskexpo Tel./Fax: +375 17 2269858 Email: e_fedorova@minskexpo.com Website: www.minskexpo.com
September, 16 to 18 August, 10 to 12
March, 25 to 27 7th
Mediterranean Poultry Summit
Cordova, Spain For information contact: Mr C. GarcĂŠs Narro Universidad Cardenal Herrera CEU C/ Tirant Lo Blanc, 7 46115 Alfara del Patriarca Valencia, Spain Email: cgarces@uchceu.es
Poultry Science Symposium on 'Pre and probiotics, nutrition, veterinary and production perspectives' Clare College, University of Cambridge Cambridge, United Kingdom For information contact: Email: wpsa@hotmail.co.uk Website: www.wpsa2020.org
August, 16 to 20
April, 15 to 16
Palais de Congrès, Paris, France
Poultry Symposium for Production and Processing
For information contact: Email: wpsafrance@wpsa.fr Website: www.wpcparis2020.com
For information contact: Holly Rogers Email: info@thepoultryfederation.com Website: www.thepoultryfederation.com
May, 19 to 21 14th Azerbaijan International Agricultura Exhibition Baku Expo Center Baku, Azerbaijan For information contact: Caspian Event Organisers Baku, Azerbaijan 15, Nobel Avenue, 7th floor, Azure Business Center Tel.: +994 12 404 1000 Fax: +994 12 447 8558 Email:office@ceo.az Website: caspianagro.az
XXXII International Poultry Science Symposium WPSA Polish Branch Hotel Krasicki Lidzbark Warminski, Poland For information contact: Email: wpsa2020@uwm.edu.pl Website: www.wpsa.pl
October, 21 to 22 World's Poultry Congress 2020
JQH Convention Center 3303 S Pinnacle Hills Pkwy Rogers, AR United States
For information contact: Mr. Jean Baptiste Musabyimana Abusol Ltd. Email: jeanbapti@yahoo.fr
Poultry Africa Kigali Convention Centre Kigali Rwanda For information contact: Mr. Jean Baptiste Musabyimana Abusol Ltd. Email: jeanbapti@yahoo.fr
September, 15 to 18 SPACE 2020 Rue Maurice le Lannou - CS 54239 35042 Rennes Cedex - France For information contact: Tel.: +33 (0) 2 23 48 28 80 Fax. +33 (0) 2 23 48 28 81 Email: info@space.fr Website: uk.space.fr
November, 4 to 5 Canadian Poultry XPO 353 McCarthy Rd, Stratford, ON N5A 7S7, Canada For information contact: Office: 519 838 0117 Fax: 519 821 4266 Email: info@poultryxpo.ca Website: poultryxpo.ca
September, 16 to 18 XXXII International Poultry Science Symposium WPSA Polish Branch Hotel Krasicki Lidzbark Warminski, Poland For information contact: Email: wpsa2020@uwm.edu.pl Website: www.wpsa.pl
November, 17 to 20 EuroTier 2020 Hanover Exhibition Grounds Hanover, Germany For information contact: Website: www.eurotier.com/en/contact
INTERNET GUIDE ABVista emea@abvista.com www.abvista.com Agritech agritech@agritech.it www.agritech.it Arion Fasoli nicolabonetti@arionfasoli.com www.arionfasoli.com Aviagen info@aviagen.com www.aviagen.com Aviagen Turkeys Ltd turkeysltd@aviagen.com www.aviagenturkeys.com Aza International info@azainternational.it www.azainternational.it Barbieri Belts info@barbieri-belts.com www.barbieri-belts.com Bayer HealthCare www.bayer.com Big Dutchman big@bigdutchman.com www.bigdutchman.de Biochem info@biochem.net www.biochem.net Carfed Headquarters info@carfed.ch www.carfed.ch Carfed Italian Branch info@carfed.it www.carfed.it Cobb Europe info@cobb-europe.com www.cobb-vantress.com Codaf info@codaf.net www.codaf.net Corti Zootecnici s.r.l. info@cortizootecnici.com www.cortizootecnici.com DSM Nutritional Products www.dsm.com Elanco www.elanco.com Eurosilos SIRP contatti@eurosilos.it www.eurosilos.it EuroTier eurotier@dlg.org www.eurotier.com Facco Poultry Equipment facco@facco.net www.facco.net Farmer Automatic info@farmerautomatic.de www.farmerautomatic.de FIEM fiem@fiem.it www.fiem.it Fiera di Forlì info@fieravicola.com www.fieravicola.com FierAgricola Verona info@veronafiere.it www.veronafiere.it Gasolec sales@gasolec.com www.gasolec.com Giordano Poultry Plast info@poultryplast.com www.poultryplast.com GI-OVO B.V. sales@gi-ovo.com www.gi-ovo.com Hendrix Genetics info@hendrix-genetics.com www.hendrix-genetics.com Hubbard contact.emea@hubbardbreeders.com www.hubbardbreeders.com Hy-Line International info@hyline.com www.hyline.com Impex Barneveld BV info@impex.nl www.impex.nl Intracare info@intracare.nl www.intracare.nl Jamesway USA-sales@jamesway.com www.jamesway.com Jansen Poultry Equipment info@jpe.org www.jpe.org Marel Poultry info.poultry@marel.com www.marel.com/poultry-processing Mbe Breeding Equipment info@mbefabriano.it www.mbefabriano.it Menci commerciale@menci.it www.menci.it Meyn sales@meyn.com www.meyn.com MOBA sales@moba.net www.moba.net MS Technologies sales@MSTegg.com www.MSTegg.com Newpharm info@newpharm.it www.newpharm.it Officine Meccaniche Vettorello luciano@officinevettorello.it www.officinevettorello.com Omaz srl omaz@omaz.com www.omaz.com Pas Reform info@pasreform.com www.pasreform.com Petersime N.V. info@petersime.com www.petersime.com Prinzen BV info@prinzen.com www.prinzen.com Reventa info@reventa.de www.reventa.de Roxell info@roxell.com www.roxell.com Ska ska@ska.it www.ska.it Socorex socorex@socorex.com www.socorex.com Space info@space.fr www.space.fr Specht Ten Elsen GmbH & Co. KG info@specht-tenelsen.de www.specht-tenelsen.de Tecnoclima tecnoclima@tecnoclimaspa.com www. tecnoclimaspa.com TPI-Polytechniek info@tpi-polytechniek.com www.tpi-polytechniek.com U.S. Poultry & Egg Association info@uspoultry.org www.uspoultry.org Val-co intl.sales@val-co.com www.val-co.com Valli info@valli-italy.com www.valli-italy.com VDL Agrotech info@vdlagrotech.nl www.vdlagrotech.com Vencomatic info@vencomatic.com www.vencomaticgroup.com Victoria victoria@victoria-srl.com www.incubatricivictoria.com VIV Europe viv@vnuexhibitions.com www.viv.net Vostermans ventilation@vostermans.com www.vostermans.com
Editorial Director Lucio Vernillo Editorial Staff (zootecnica@zootecnica.it): Daria Domenici, Tania Montelatici Account Executive Marianna Caterino (amministrazione@zootecnica.it) Editorial Office Zootecnica International Via Ugo Foscolo 35 50018 Scandicci (FI) Italy Tel.: +39 055 2571891 Fax: +39 055 2571897 Website: www.zootecnicainternational.com Licence Registrazione Tribunale di Firenze n.3162 Spedizione in A.P. Art.2 comma 20/B legge 662/96 - Filiale di Firenze ISSN 0392-0593 Subscription Rates (1 year / 11 issues): Europe Euro 44 Rest of the World Euro 57 * Subscribe online by Credit Card or Paypal: www.zootecnicainternational.com * Subscribe by money transfer: 1. effect a money transfer to: Zootecnica International, via Ugo Foscolo, 35 50018 Scandicci (FI) Italy; bank: UNICREDIT, BIC: UNICRITM1OU9 Iban: IT 81 H 02008 38083 000020067507 2. send us your complete shipping address by fax (+39 055 2571897) or by email (amministrazione@zootecnica.it). Art Direction & Layout Laura Cardilicchia - ellecigrafica.com Cover Image: © Denise Vernillo Printed Nova Arti Grafiche, Florence
English Edition Year XLII March 2020
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Visit us at LIVESTOCK ASIA Stand H113 – Hall A
SPECHT is everywhere where hens are! • Rearing in aviary system
• Layers in Varia-System
• Rearing in cages
• Group cage system (enriched cage)
L
ORIGINA
estock eco and liv friendly
ORIGINAL
• Feeding system
®
• Layer battery
• Egg belt
• Cage floor
POULTRY EQUIPMENT
GmbH & Co. KG
• Manure drying system
Dassendaler Weg 13 • D-47665 Sonsbeck (Germany) Telefon +49 (0) 28 38 912-0 • Telefax +49 (0) 28 38 27 91 info@specht-tenelsen.de • www.specht-tenelsen.de
• Egg collecting system
