College Level Psychology by AudioLearn

Psychology

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TABLE OF CONTENTS Preface........................................................................................................ 1 Chapter One: Psychology as a Discipline ..................................................... 5 Psychology Explained ...................................................................................................... 5 Basic Branches of Psychology .......................................................................................... 8 History of Psychology .................................................................................................... 10 Modern Psychology ........................................................................................................ 15 Careers in Psychology .....................................................................................................17 Key Takeaways ............................................................................................................... 18 Quiz ................................................................................................................................ 19 Chapter Two: Psychological Research ....................................................... 23 Scientific Method ........................................................................................................... 23 Types of Psychological Research ................................................................................... 25 Experimental Psychology .............................................................................................. 29 Analyzing Research Findings......................................................................................... 31 Ethics in Psychological Research................................................................................... 33 Key Takeaways ............................................................................................................... 35 Quiz ................................................................................................................................ 36 Chapter Three: Biology in Psychology ....................................................... 40 Psychology and Genetics................................................................................................ 40 Parts of the Nervous System .......................................................................................... 45 Parts of the Nervous System .......................................................................................... 49 Brain Imaging ................................................................................................................ 54

The Endocrine System ................................................................................................... 55 Neurotransmitters ......................................................................................................... 56 Biopsychology ................................................................................................................ 58 Key Takeaways ............................................................................................................... 59 Quiz ................................................................................................................................ 60 Chapter Four: Lifespan Development ....................................................... 64 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 64 Theories on Lifespan Development ............................................................................... 65 Developmental Stages .................................................................................................... 68 Adolescent Development ............................................................................................... 72 Adulthood....................................................................................................................... 73 Death and Dying ............................................................................................................ 73 Key Takeaways ............................................................................................................... 75 Quiz ................................................................................................................................ 76 Chapter Five: Consciousness .....................................................................80 States of Consciousness .................................................................................................80 History of Consciousness ............................................................................................... 81 Sleep and Stages of Sleep ............................................................................................... 82 Sleep Disorders .............................................................................................................. 84 Altered States of Consciousness .................................................................................... 86 Meditation and Hypnosis .............................................................................................. 87 Hypnosis ........................................................................................................................ 87 Key Takeaways ............................................................................................................... 89 Quiz ................................................................................................................................ 90

Chapter Six: Sensation and Perception ..................................................... 94 Sensation and Perception Defined ................................................................................ 94 Waves ............................................................................................................................. 96 Vision ............................................................................................................................. 98 Hearing........................................................................................................................... 99 Other Senses .................................................................................................................101 Gestalt Principles of Sensation .................................................................................... 104 Quiz .............................................................................................................................. 107 Chapter Seven: Learning Theory .............................................................. 111 Learning Defined .......................................................................................................... 111 Classical Conditioning .................................................................................................. 116 Operant Conditioning ................................................................................................... 117 Modeling ....................................................................................................................... 119 Key Takeaways .............................................................................................................. 121 Quiz .............................................................................................................................. 122 Chapter Eight: Intelligence and Thinking ................................................ 126 Cognition Defined ........................................................................................................ 126 Language ...................................................................................................................... 129 Problem Solving ........................................................................................................... 130 Sources of Intelligence .................................................................................................. 131 Intelligence Assessment............................................................................................... 132 Key Takeaways ............................................................................................................. 134 Quiz .............................................................................................................................. 135 Chapter Nine: Personality ....................................................................... 139

Personality Defined...................................................................................................... 139 Personality Development ............................................................................................. 140 Freud and Neo-Freudians in Personality Development .............................................. 141 Approaches to Personality ........................................................................................... 144 Personality Assessment ............................................................................................... 146 Personality Disorders................................................................................................... 147 Key Takeaways ............................................................................................................. 150 Quiz ............................................................................................................................... 151 Chapter Ten: Memory .............................................................................. 155 Types of Memory ..........................................................................................................155 Biological Basis of Memory ..........................................................................................157 Memory Impairment ................................................................................................... 158 Memory Enhancements ............................................................................................... 160 Key Takeaways .............................................................................................................. 161 Quiz .............................................................................................................................. 162 Chapter Eleven: Emotion and Motivation ................................................ 166 What is Motivation? ..................................................................................................... 166 Sexual Behavior............................................................................................................ 168 Hunger and Satiety ...................................................................................................... 170 Eating Disorders ...........................................................................................................173 Basis of Emotion .......................................................................................................... 174 Key Takeaways ............................................................................................................. 176 Quiz ............................................................................................................................... 177 Chapter Twelve: Social Psychology ........................................................... 181

Social Psychology Defined ............................................................................................ 181 Attitudes and Persuasion ............................................................................................. 183 Conformity, Obedience, and Compliance .................................................................... 185 Discrimination and Prejudice ...................................................................................... 186 Social Aggression ......................................................................................................... 187 Prosocial Behavior ....................................................................................................... 188 Key Takeaways ............................................................................................................. 190 Quiz ............................................................................................................................... 191 Chapter Thirteen: Stress and the Pursuit of Happiness ........................... 195 Stress Defined .............................................................................................................. 195 Stressors ....................................................................................................................... 198 Stress and Disease....................................................................................................... 200 Regulating Stress .........................................................................................................202 Happiness..................................................................................................................... 203 Key Takeaways ............................................................................................................. 205 Quiz ..............................................................................................................................206 Chapter Fourteen: Psychopathology ....................................................... 210 Diagnosis of Psychological Disorders .......................................................................... 210 Anxiety Disorders ......................................................................................................... 211 Obsessive-Compulsive Disorders ................................................................................ 213 PTSD ............................................................................................................................ 214 Dissociative Disorders ................................................................................................. 214 Mood Disorders ........................................................................................................... 215 Schizophrenia................................................................................................................217

Somatic Symptom Disorder ......................................................................................... 218 Childhood Psychological Disorders ............................................................................. 218 Key Takeaways .............................................................................................................220 Quiz .............................................................................................................................. 221 Chapter Fifteen: Psychotherapy and Mental Health Treatment ............... 225 History of Mental Health Treatment ........................................................................... 225 Types of Therapy .......................................................................................................... 226 Treating Substance Abuse ........................................................................................... 230 Types of Therapy Providers ......................................................................................... 230 Key Takeaways ............................................................................................................. 232 Quiz .............................................................................................................................. 233 Summary ................................................................................................ 237 Course Questions and Answers ............................................................... 241

PREFACE This course is designed to introduce the listener to the basis of college psychology. Simply put, psychology is the study of the mind. There are elements of psychology that have biological origins, such as learning, memory, sensation, and perception. Psychological wellness is important to overall health. In the course, we talk about stress and illness, states of consciousness, and personality. The different mental illnesses are important to learn about when you study psychology as well as the different ways that many of these disorders are treated by psychologists and other mental health professionals. When you finish the course, you should feel competent in your understanding of psychology as it is presented in a typical college psychology course. Chapter one in the course introduces psychology as a health discipline. In the chapter, you will learn about what psychology means as a discipline, the history of psychology throughout the world, and the practice of modern psychology. Psychology has many applications. Whether you are studying psychology to become a psychologist or using psychology as part of your career, this chapter will help you understand both the different careers in psychology and the various fields of applied psychology. The focus of chapter two is psychological research. All good research starts with an understanding of the scientific method, which is the foundation of all research processes. There are different types of psychological research studies that differ in their design and interpretation, as well as ways to interpret the findings determined to be fact in the different psychological experiments. There are certain ethical principles that must be considered when performing research on human subjects, which are covered as part of this chapter. Chapter three in the course delves into the subject of biology in the study of psychology. Genetics are an important part of the biology of a human being, so this is covered in the chapter. The cells and structures of the nervous system need to be understood before you can understand the interplay between biology and psychological phenomena. An important aspect of this are the neurotransmitters that have different effects on the

nervous system. All of these things are put together in the study of biopsychology, which is a major research field in psychology. Chapter four is about lifespan development. There are several researchers who have developed theories on lifespan development, which are explained in the chapter. The different stages of development, from the prenatal stage to stages of advanced age, are covered in this chapter. Finally, issues related to death and dying as well as the different stages of grief are explained as part of the chapter. The focus of chapter five in the course is consciousness, which is the awareness of one s internal and external environment. There are different states of consciousness experienced every day, the most common of which is the sleep state. There are different stages of sleep that can be identified and a range of sleep-related disorders that can affect a person. Altered states of consciousness are covered in this chapter, including ways of inducing an altered state, such as meditation and hypnosis. Chapter six discusses the principles of sensation and perception. Sensation can involve several things because there are multiple sensory organs in the body. The typical sensory functions covered in this chapter are vision, hearing, olfaction, taste, and several different tactile perceptions. Each of these depends on certain receptors that pick up details from the environment. Perception is related to sensation. Because Gestalt psychology is based on perception, this is discussed in this chapter as well. The topic of chapter seven in the course is learning theories. Learning involves the acquisition of new information but it also involve acquiring behaviors, values, preferences, or skills. There is learning throughout life and different ways in which learning can happen. Some of the most historically significant learning strategies are classical conditioning and operant conditioning, although there are other ways of learning new things, such as through operational learning or modeling, which is covered in this chapter. Chapter eight is about intelligence, thinking, and cognition. Part of the understanding of intelligence involves the understanding of things like creativity and language. Where intelligence comes from and how it is tested for are also covered in this chapter.

Everyone, regardless of their intelligence, has the ability to problem solve so this is included in the chapter. The focus of chapter nine in the course is personality. Personality involves the traits a person has that are consistent over time. There are multiple theories on what personality is all about and theories on personality development, which are discussed in the chapter. Specific personality tests can be used to evaluate a person s personality. Finally, there are personality disorders covered in the chapter, which represent deviations in what can be called a normal personality. Chapter ten in the course introduces the subject of memory. Memory is not just a single thing as there are several types of memory. Memory is largely biological, with certain parts of the brain contributing to the experience of memory. Some people have memory deficits, which are discussed in the chapter. In order to combat memory impairment, many individuals will use specific memory enhancement techniques in order to improve memory. Chapter eleven is about emotion and motivation. Motivation explains why a person does what they do. There are specific motivations that are universal to all humans. These include the drives to eat and the drives related to sexuality and sex. The chapter talks about the different disorders related to eating and sexuality, such as eating disorders and gender identity disorder. Finally, the basis of emotions is covered in the chapter. Chapter twelve in the book talks about issues related to social psychology. Social psychology is about those behaviors, thoughts, and feeling brought about by interactions with other people. There are certain things that occur mainly in the group environment, such as conformity, obedience, aggression, and prosocial behavior. This chapter is basically about groups and group dynamics as they exist only in a social environment. The topics in chapter thirteen include stress from a psychological viewpoint and the pursuit of happiness. Stress comes in many forms; there can be relatively positive stressors and negative stressors. People regulate stress in relatively predictable ways, which are covered in the chapter. Negative stress can lead to a variety of disease states. The pursuit of happiness is an uplifting aspect of psychology, which is also covered as part of this chapter.

The focus of chapter fourteen in the course is clinical psychology or the study of psychopathology. There are many different types of mental disorders in the realm of psychology, which are briefly covered in the chapter. These include mood disorders, schizophrenia, post-traumatic stress disorder, dissociative disorders, and somatic disorders. The different psychological disorders that primarily affect children are also discussed in the chapter. The chapter also explains how different psychological disorders are diagnosed in clinical psychology. Chapter fifteen is about the treatment of mental health disorders. Mental health treatment has been around for centuries but is currently more humane than it originally was. There are several approaches to treating mental illness and several specific psychological treatments, which are covered in the chapter. There are many types of providers that help people with mental health problems, which are described as part of the chapter.

CHAPTER ONE: PSYCHOLOGY AS A DISCIPLINE This chapter introduces psychology as a health discipline. In the chapter, you will hear about what psychology means as a discipline, the history of psychology throughout the world, and the practice of modern psychology. Psychology has many applications. Whether you are studying psychology to become a psychologist, or using psychology as part of your career, this chapter will help you understand both the different careers in psychology and the various fields of applied psychology.

PSYCHOLOGY EXPLAINED Psychology is the study of the interactions between emotions, behavior, and cognition or thinking. These things are both separate and interrelated aspects of the human mind. Some psychologists are interested in psychological development and the formation of personality. Others spend their time researching how people think in different circumstances in order to predict and control behavior. There are many applications of psychology in everyday life. For this reason, there are several disciplines under the umbrella of applied psychology”. There are also psychotherapists that counsel and treat individuals with psychological disorders in individual, couples, family, and group psychotherapy. The term psyche” is of Greek origin, which means soul. Because the soul and mind were not well understood at the time when the term psychology was developed, this is why the term meant the study of the soul but now means the study of the mind. In modern times, psychology is considered a scientific discipline. As with any scientific study, psychology makes use of the scientific method. This involves first identifying a hypothesis or theory that might explain what is happening to an individual. The researcher takes the hypothesis and makes observations or creates an experiment to test the hypothesis. After this, there are results of the experiment or observations. If the results are verified, they can be published and certain theorems can

be made based on the results. Theorems are laws or explanations of what is happening in a given setting. There are many sub-fields in psychology. There will be more on applied psychology later in this chapter so now we will talk about the basics of the different disciplines involved in the study of psychology. You can see where psychology has a great many applications in schools, industry, and in communities all over the world. These are a few of the subfields involved in psychology: •

Aviation psychology—this is the study of the psychology of aviation safety. It focuses on the psychological aspects of pilot performance so as to understand how to avoid aviation accidents.

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Biological psychology—this is also referred to as biopsychology. It is involved with the interplay between physical processes of the mind and how it relates to psychological principles.

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Clinical psychology—this is the study of how mental illnesses develop and how to treat the different psychological and mental illnesses.

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Comparative psychology—this is the study of how different animals in nature behave and how it varies from species to species.

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Consumer psychology—this is the study of how individuals determine which products and services to purchase. It helps salespeople determine how to target their advertising based on psychological principles.

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Counseling psychology—this is similar to clinical psychology but focuses on helping the average person cope better, reduce stress, and overcome social and emotional concerns.

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Developmental psychology—this is the study of the way humans develop throughout their lives in the areas of emotional, physical, intellectual, and social health.

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Educational or school psychology—this involves psychologists who work within educational settings to improve student wellbeing and success in their educational endeavors.

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Experimental psychology—this is also referred to as research psychology. It is involved in the designing and implementation of research studies in order to understand how people think and behave.

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Family psychology—this is the field that deals most with issues involving couples and families as they deal with various issues amongst themselves.

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Forensic psychology—this is the area of psychology that deals with criminal behavior and with the legal system.

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Geropsychology—this is the area of expertise that deals with the aging process and how people think and behave in their older years.

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Industrial psychology—this field studies the psychology of workers in the workplace in order to better understand how to maximize employee wellbeing at work.

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Psychometrics—this is the study of testing within psychology, including how to test people for intelligence and personality issues.

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Social psychology—this is the field of how your emotions, beliefs, and behaviors are affected by other individuals in a social setting. It deals with groups and group behaviors.

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Sports psychology—this is the study of performance psychology in athletics in order to maximize motivation and athletic performance in sports.

BASIC BRANCHES OF PSYCHOLOGY One of the major branches of psychology is neuropsychology or biopsychology. It looks at the different biological factors that affect mental processes and behavior. It looks at the phenomena associated with sensation and sensory perception. This is a relatively new field of psychology because it depends on understanding things like neurotransmitters and the different mental processes linked to different parts of the brain. The field originated in the 1870s, when a researcher named Paul Broca mapped speech production to certain areas on the left frontal gyrus of the brain. Another researcher, Carl Wernicke, mapped out the areas of the brain that determine the ability to understand the spoken word. It was discovered by these researchers that there is lateralization of certain cerebral processes so that an injury on a specific side an of the brain means a different impact on mental and physical functioning. Many other things were discovered by studying people who had major brain injuries. One infamous patient who was studied was Phineas Gage, who had a rod impaling his frontal lobe and survived. He developed significant social and interpersonal difficulties afterward, which were examined; the findings helped doctors understand the role of the frontal lobe on thinking and behavior. In modern science, there is the field of behavioral neuroscience that looks at the interplay between neurology and psychology. Because of the ethical issues regarding the study of the nervous system in humans, many studies are done on neural circuits as they relate to learning and memory in rats. There are doctors and researchers that use neuroimaging techniques to take specialized images of the human brain. The differences in brain structures as they relate to psychological differences in humans can then be studied ethically. Brain damaged patients or those with brain tumors can help determine which parts of the brain are associated with what kinds of neurological, emotional, and cognitive defects. A related field is evolutionary psychology, which looks at thinking patterns and personality traits that have changed over the course of human development. According

to those who study this field, there have been specific psychological adaptations that have evolved over the course of human history in order to advance humankind. Behavioral genetics looks at the more immediate genetic factors that play a role in behavior and cognition. Another branch of psychology is behavioral psychology. This has involved a great deal of research on mammals and other animals with regard to learning and behavior among the different species. Later on, we will cover classical and operant conditioning. This has been studied in animals and applied to human behavior. Behaviorism describes how people could be used to describe how phobias can develop by pairing an aversive stimulus with otherwise benign imagery. Behaviorism or behavioral psychology is used to explain the concepts of reinforcement and punishment in order to model certain behaviors. They do not discuss things like the unconscious mind, which cannot easily be studied. Famous behaviorists include Edwin Guthrie, Clark Hull, and BF Skinner. A part of behaviorism is called cognitive behaviorism, which combines pure or radical behaviorism and the internal thinking processes of the mind. Behavioral modification is used in some psychological circles in order to shape human and animal behavior. Cognitive psychology is another main branch of psychology. It mainly studies thinking processes, such as reasoning, attention, perception, memory, learning, and problemsolving. These are largely physical processes that originate in the brain. Researchers use experimental studies to look at how people learn and observe things. Aspects of behaviorism and cognitive psychology have been combined in clinical terms to make cognitive behavioral therapy, which is a popular form of psychotherapy. Social psychology is another major branch of psychology. It studies the thought processes and relationships between two or more individuals. Things related to this include persuasion, stereotyping, conformity, and group dynamics. Group dynamics relates to things like group communication, leadership, and how people work together in groups. Social issues also play a big role in the manifestations of some psychiatric diseases.

HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGY Psychology is related to several other disciplines, including sociology, philosophy, anthropology, physiology, and neuroscience. Psychology was originally studied as a branch of philosophy and has been studied on some levels in ancient cultures, including the Egyptians. Modern psychology was first thought of as an independent scientific field in Germany in the 1970s. It was originally studied in a research format by Wilhelm Wundt, who created the first psychological laboratory. Early researchers were William James, who first studied pragmatism, Hermann Ebbinghaus, who first studied memory, and Ivan Pavlov, who worked with dogs in the development of classical conditioning. Borne out of experimental psychology were different kinds of applied psychology. Psychology was applied to many different fields, including the legal system and industry. The first psychology clinic was established by Lightner Witmer in the 1890s. Mental testing was also first established in the 1890s. It was also at this time that Sigmund Freud developed his theory and practice of psychoanalysis. The early Twentieth Century brought about John B Watson and BF Skinner, who first studied issues related to behaviorism. This became popular because of the fact that behavior could be easily examined and quantified. These early behaviorists didn t concern themselves with the mind because it was considered to be too vague a topic to actually study. The latter half of the Twentieth Century was when cognitive psychology was developed. The mind was increasingly studied in order to apply the findings to different aspects of applied psychology, including the field of artificial intelligence, which continues to be a popular psychological field of research. The first uses of the term psychology” predates the practice of psychology. It was a branch of philosophy developed in the late 1500s. It was later popularized in the early 1700s by a German philosopher named Christian Wolff. It was originally thought of as the study of the soul. Rene Descartes looked at psychology as a part of his philosophy in

the early 1600s. Some of his works were not originally published because of possible criticism by the Catholic Church. Early study that predated the transition to modern psychology included the study of mesmerism, which was considered a precursor to modern-day hypnosis, and phrenology, which was the study of the meaning of bumps on the skull. France Mesmer first brought about mesmerism in the late 1700s in Austria. It was used to cure different physical and mental illnesses. Mesmerism in its pure form was eventually discounted. Later, several physicians remade mesmerism into what is now referred to as hypnotism. Immanuel Kant, in the late 1700s, first addressed the issue of whether or not psychology was an independent science apart from philosophy but he thought it could not be because it involved things that could not actually be quantified. Johann Herbart opposed this idea of Kant s, attempting to come up with mathematical models that could explain psychological phenomena. This led to researchers like Gustav Fechner, who first coined the term psychophysics, which looked at quantifying aspects of psychology. The related subjects of neuropsychology and psychology came together in the mid1800s, when Charles Bell and Francois Magendie were able to distinguish between motor and sensory nerves. The electrical basis of muscle cell contraction was discovered and both Pierre Broca and Carl Wernicke uncovered the parts of the brain responsible for speech and language. The speed of nerve transmission was discovered by Hermann Helmholtz, as was the nature of our understanding of color vision and sound. It was Wilhelm Wundt who first published a book on the study of psychological psychology, which led to his opening of the first experimental facility for the study of psychology. He gathered students from all parts of the world who studied under him in what was considered a widely expanding scientific field. It is commonly known that the Austrian physician Sigmund Freud is considered the father of modern psychoanalysis. He also pioneered hypnosis, the concepts of free association, and dream interpretation—each used to identify unconscious beliefs that led to the phenomenon of hysteria. The emphasis was on sexual development as the source of a great many psychological disorders. He and Karl Jung identified

compartmentalized thinking, in which certain thoughts and behaviors are lost to the conscious self. Both physicians agreed on the concept of ego but disagreed on the influence that sexuality had on the development of mental illnesses. Jung identified four different aspects of mental functioning that help to define a person s ego, which is the conscious self. These include: •

The ability to sense things in the outside world, called sensations.

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Feelings, which help to motivate our responses to sensations.

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Intellect, which compares a sensation to past sensations so as to understand its meaning.

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Intuition, which can help predict unexpected consequences.

Sigmund Freud s ideas were both influential and controversial. Few psychologists doubt that early childhood experiences shape the rest of the person s life. Freud changed his ideas from his early days to his later days and there is more criticism about his earlier works. Most of the criticism comes from his earlier works. Less controversial are his ideas on the importance of the relationship between the therapist and the client. The first American to study psychology was William James, who was a psychologist who opened a psychology laboratory in the 1870s. He lectured on the senses and their relationship to thought. He published a book called The Principles of Psychology” in the late 1800s. Another early American who studied psychology was Charles Peirce. He studied color vision as one of the major senses. He was joined by G. Stanley Hall, who studied experimental psychology in the 1880s. Hall was the founder of the American Journal of Psychology, where his work was first published. About 40 years later, Princeton University opened the first Department of Psychology. G. Stanley Hall was one of the founding members of the American Psychological Association. Over time, there was controversy that led to structuralism and functionalism in psychology, which will be discussed in a minute.

It can be said that Wilhelm Wundt was the first psychologist. He studied the conscious experience and undertook study of the different components of consciousness. He felt that the human mind was unique in that it was capable of introspection or internal perception”, which was the examination of one s own conscious experience. He made use of experienced observers who could report specific reactions to repeatable stimuli. Wundt made major contributions to structuralism, which was the attempt to find structure out of the characteristics of the mind. He studied reaction times to various stimuli down to one-thousandth of a second in some cases. Structuralism was far less popular later on because it was not possible to train people consistently in the process of objective introspection. William James had a different perspective on psychology. He studied Darwinian evolution and believed that people were the product of natural selection. He was the founder of functionalism, which was the study of how mental functions helped the individual fit into their environment. The interest was in the way the whole mind operated, rather than the parts of the mind. Gestalt psychology was developed by several German psychologists who escaped Nazi Germany and came to the US. Gestalt basically means whole” and talks about the fact that, despite the separate parts of the sensory experience, these parts are related to one another in order to create a whole, which was a contradiction to structuralism developed by Wundt. Gestalt psychology didn t take hold in the US as much as it had in Germany. There were several other researchers in the world who pioneered the ideas related to behaviorism. Ivan Pavlov in Russia studied reflexes elicited as a result of different stimuli. Pavlov worked on salivation in dogs both with and without the presence of actual food. The pairing of food with an alternate stimulus created a response to the alternate or learned stimulus. This was classical conditioning. John B Watson was an American psychologist who believed it was impossible to analyze the mind objectively. He focused instead on observable behaviors. He was influential in shifting the focus of psychology from the mind to that of behavior. He and other behaviorists attempted to translate animal behavioral findings to human behavior. Behaviors and behavioral modification are used in many psychological settings.

BF Skinner was another American behaviorist who utilized aspects of reinforcement and punishment in order to drive behavior. He pioneered operant conditioning and made use of what s referred to as the Skinner box to study animal behaviors. The Skinner box used learning in rats to reinforce behaviors that would increase the chances of a reward or a punishment. The two dominating features of American psychology in the Twentieth Century were psychoanalysis and behaviorism. There were, however, some psychologists who were not satisfied with these limitations. They formed the concepts that emphasized a predisposition for good as being important for human self-concept and behavior. They believed that the potential for good exists in all humans. This was the foundation for humanism, which was proposed by Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers. Maslow was a Twentieth century humanist who proposed Maslow s hierarchy of needs that help to motivate human behavior. If the needs lower down in the hierarchy are met, then some of the higher needs, such as social needs, will begin to motivate human behavior. Full potential is achieved when a person reaches self-actualization. Out of Maslow s work came research on meditation, happiness, and self-concept. Figure 1 shows Maslow s hierarchy of human needs:

Figure 1.

Carl Rogers also emphasized the potential for human good. He used client-centered therapy to help patients deal with the issues that brought them into therapy in the first place. He felt that the therapist needed to be genuine, have unconditional positive regard, and empathy. With these things, he felt that the patient was fully capable of working through their interpersonal issues. Humanism lead psychologists to an increased focus on the whole individual as a selfaware person. Because of advances in other areas of science, there was more attention paid to the field of cognitive psychology. The first textbook on the subject was published in 1967. Noam Chomsky was one of the major influences on this movement toward cognitive psychology. It combined the fields of linguistics, anthropology, neuroscience, and computer science in the understanding of human cognition.

MODERN PSYCHOLOGY Modern psychology or contemporary psychology has certainly been influenced by history. In today s time, the largest professional organization of psychologists in the world is the APA or the American Psychological Association. There are 56 separate divisions of the APA that represent the different areas of applied psychology. The APS or Association for Psychological Science was developed in 1988 and focuses on the scientific aspects of psychology. There are many other contemporary associations related to the advancement of psychology. There are several branches of modern-day psychology that will be discussed throughout this course. We have already discussed biopsychology, which looks at the biological influences on human behavior. Later on, we will talk about the different aspects of the nervous system—each of which becomes important in the study of human behavior. The issues that are dealt with include neurodevelopment, biological basis of psychological diseases, sleep, and drug abuse. Evolutionary psychology is related to this field. It looks at the impact of genetics on human behavior. It is difficult, however, to determine whether or not a behavior or trait is naturally selected by evolution. For this reason, while it is believed that behavior has

an evolutionary origin, it is hard to find out what aspects of behavior are solely based on evolution. Cognitive psychology looks at thoughts or cognitions and how they relate to action and experiences. There are a lot of disciplines that fall under the umbrella of cognitive psychology. Things that are covered include sensation, perception, problem solving, language, and memory. Developmental psychology is the study of how humans develop across their lifespan. It relates to issues of physical and psychological maturation. There are issues at every stage of human development with goals to be met as part of each stage. Jean Piaget was a famous child psychologist who studied the development of young children. Outside of his work, there is increasing focus on the psychological issues facing the aging population. Personality psychology places a focus on the behaviors and thinking that make each person a unique individual. Freud, Maslow, and Gordon Alport have all contributed to how personality develops. There are certain personality traits that exist in each individual, which help to define the different ways the person reacts and interacts with their environment. Personality traits are relatively stable over time and include things like a person s degree of openness, neuroticism, and extraversion. Social psychology refers to differences in how the person interacts with others. It looks at issues of prejudice, the resolution of interpersonal conflicts, and attraction. It also looks at how being with other people help to shape a person s patterns of thinking and human behaviors. It studies how people are sometimes willing to do things they would not ordinarily do just because they were told to do so by an authority figure. Health psychology looks specifically at the interactions between psychological, biological, and sociocultural factors. There are relationships between psychological stress, physical health, genetic makeup, and patterns of behavior. Those who study this aspect of psychology look at those patterns of behavior that contribute to poor health outcomes. Clinical psychology focuses on the different psychological disorders and problem behaviors. Some in this field do research but most focus on the treatment of patients. 16

Counseling psychology is related to clinical psychology except that it deals with the emotional, social, and health issues in people who are basically psychologically healthy. Forensic psychology deals with psychological issues in the criminal justice system. These clinicians help to determine competency to stand trial and consult on possible treatment recommendations. They become expert witnesses in relation to court cases and jury selection. They help to prepare witnesses and provide some kinds of psychological treatment to those in the criminal justice system. Criminal profilers are also professionals in forensic psychology.

CAREERS IN PSYCHOLOGY Individuals with a degree in psychology can do many different types of jobs in multiple workplaces. A degree in psychology can be a 4-year bachelor of science degree, while those who treat patients must have a master s degree or PhD in the field. People with a PhD can work in higher education doing research and teaching. Others work in hospitals, government medical centers, businesses, medical schools, or private practice. Postdoctoral programs are generally for individuals who are interested in pursuing a specific field of psychological research. Another common degree is a doctor of psychology degree, which is often for individuals who have a desire to become a clinical psychologist. There is a reduced emphasis on research and a greater emphasis on skills necessary to treat patients. There is a licensure examination for licensed clinical psychologists. Psychologists cannot prescribe medications but can treat patients using other modalities. People with undergraduate degrees in psychology can use these skills to enter other fields, such as nursing, human resources, teaching, and even sales. There are many corporations that value a degree in psychology when it comes to helping employees in the workforce or understanding how consumers make decisions in advertising.

KEY TAKEAWAYS •

Psychology is the study of emotions, cognition, and behaviors.

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There are different psychological angles that focus on things like behaviors, biopsychology, and the study of mental processes.

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Behaviorists tend to stick to those things that are observable in human psychology.

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Psychology has been studied and written about since ancient times.

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Modern psychology predates to about the 1870s in Germany with the opening of the first research laboratories devoted to psychological research.

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There are many different areas of applied psychology that are used in numerous ways in all aspects of human life.

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There are different degrees that can be gotten in the study of psychology as an academic focus.

QUIZ 1. What is another name for thinking in psychological terms? a. Emotions b. Personality c. Behavior d. Cognition Answer: d. Cognition is basically the same thing as thinking. Cognition involves things like orientation, thought processes, and problemsolving and can be separately assessed, apart from emotions, personality, and behavior, although each of these things are linked. 2. In the Greek language, what does “psyche” mean? a. Mind b. Happiness c. Soul d. Thought Answer: c. Originally, there was not a distinction between the soul and the mind. For this reason, psychology first meant the study of the soul. 3. Which field of applied psychology studies specifically the behavioral and emotional issues of the aging person? a. Social psychology b. Geropsychology c. Developmental psychology d. Consumer psychology Answer: b. Geropsychology focuses on the psychological issues facing the person who is aged, including issues related to cognitive, social, and emotional changes that affect the older person.

4. Who first mapped the areas of the brain as they apply to the production of speech? a. Carl Wernicke b. Phineas Gage c. Pierre Broca d. Sigmund Freud Answer: c. Pierre Broca was a French researcher in the late 1800s who first identified an area of the left side of the brain that is involved in the production of human speech. 5. What field of psychology was popularized by researchers such as BF Skinner? a. Empiricism b. Psychoanalysis c. Behaviorism d. Cognitive psychology Answer: c. BF Skinner was a famous researcher who studied animal behavior and advanced several of the main theories behind behaviorism. 6. Which philosopher in the 1700s doubted that psychology could be a scientific field of study because its phenomena could not be quantified? a. Johann Herbart b. Gustav Fechner c. Wilhelm Wundt d. Emmanuel Kant Answer: d. Emmanuel Kant wrote papers on the issue of psychology as an independent science but rejected the possibility, saying that the nature of psychology could not be quantified.

7. Who was considered the first psychologist? a. William James b. BF Skinner c. Sigmund Freud d. Wilhelm Wundt Answer: d. Wilhelm Wundt not only published the first textbook on the field of psychology but he was the first to study psychology as an experimental scientist. 8. Who first pioneered the concepts of psychological structuralism, which was an attempt to try to find structure in the mind? a. Wilhelm Wundt b. William James c. BF Skinner d. Erik Erickson Answer: a. Wilhelm Wundt studied reaction times and tried to use trained observers who could objectively study the inner workings of their conscious experience. His work was an attempt at structuralism. 9. Which influential therapist pioneered the ideas of client-centered therapy? a. Carl Rogers b. Abraham Maslow c. Erik Erickson d. Sigmund Freud Answer: a. Out of the humanistic beliefs of Carl Rogers came the ideas of client-centered therapy, in which the therapist held the patient in a positive regard, had empathy, and showed genuineness as part of the therapeutic process.

10. What branch of psychology is most closely linked to clinical psychology? a. Social psychology b. Evolutionary psychology c. Counseling psychology d. Sports psychology Answer: c. Counseling psychology is closely related to clinical psychology but it deals with the issues of people who are otherwise basically psychologically healthy.

CHAPTER TWO: PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH The focus of this chapter is psychological research. All good research starts with an understanding of the scientific method, which is the foundation of all research processes. There are different types of psychological research studies that differ in their design and interpretation, as well as ways to interpret the findings determined to be fact in the different psychological experiments. There are certain ethical principles that must be considered when performing research on human subjects, which are covered as part of this chapter.

SCIENTIFIC METHOD Almost all research is based on the scientific method. This applies to research in psychology as well. It starts with a question about something and the formation of a hypothesis. A hypothesis is basically a conjecture—an idea about what the answer to the question might be. The purpose of the experiment is to see if the hypothesis was correct. The first step is to ask some type of question. It can be a question based on something you observe or on something more open-ended. You can base your question on prior experiments you have done or from things that other individual researchers have done. The question is very important because it needs to be something that can be answered by collecting data. Out of the question comes the hypothesis. There are different types of hypotheses. A statistical hypothesis relates to a statistical population being studied. A null hypothesis is the opposite of a statistical hypothesis, which is that the statistical hypothesis is false. An alternative hypothesis is what the researchers want the outcome to be. All hypotheses must be falsifiable, meaning that the experiment must be able to determine the truth or falseness of the hypothesis. The prediction is what you decide is the most likely hypothesis or conjecture. It should be something that can be proven through the experiment to be unlikely to happen by 23

chance. An unlikely prediction is stronger and more convincing if it is something that can t easily happen through statistical chance. It distinguishes the hypothesis you have chosen from the other alternative hypotheses that could be possible. Testing of the hypothesis is next. It needs to be something that collects data that can later be interpreted in order to prove or disprove the hypothesis. Ideally, the experiment should have a low risk of errors, using controls to distinguish the answers from that would happen by chance. Some of the best experiments have controls, make use of placebos, and are double-blinded. A double-blind experiment is one where neither the researcher nor the participant knows what the participant is receiving—the drug or the placebo in cases of drug-related experiments. This reduces bias in the experiment. The analysis in the experimental process takes the data points and attempts to make sense of them. The statistical hypothesis is compared to the null hypothesis in order to determine which is truer. If the evidence refutes the hypothesis, you will need to make a new hypothesis. Sometimes, evidence from other experiments is brought in to support the analysis. Statistics can be applied to the data. Psychology experiments usually deal with behaviors and the understanding of them. They involve both physiological and mental processes that lead to the behaviors. Like all scientific experiments, there needs to be evidence rather than personal experience or intuition in order to support a specific claim. Remember that, while behavior is observable, the inner workings of the mind are not. In some cases, the behavior can be understood but the reasons behind the behavior are not well understood. You also need to know that a given experiment can be repeated by others and different conclusions can be reached. This is not uncommon in any scientific field of study. It is only when several experiments, often by different researchers, arrive at the same conclusion that a scientific question can be fully answered. This is known as consensus building. You should always be skeptical of a given claim unless there is a clear consensus about it. The claim may be based on a study that was too small, too biased, or performed by individuals that have a vested interest in a certain outcome. Always look at the sample size and at who is funding or performing the experiment.

There are two kinds of reasoning in scientific circles. Deductive reasoning involves the formation of a hypothesis and the testing of the hypothesis in order to form a conclusion. Inductive reasoning involves making a specific observation and coming up with a generalized conclusion based on what you have observed. In inductive reasoning, the observation comes first and then the hypothesis or general premise. Case studies involve inductive reasoning, while most experimental research relies on deductive reasoning. Theories are an interesting aspect of the scientific method. A theory can be created or modified by the observations made during experimentation. Alternatively, a theory can be the starting point in the formation of a new hypothesis. In such cases, the theory is not the endpoint of the experiment but is the starting point of a new hypothesis.

TYPES OF PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH Psychology research is often eclectic, which means it relies on knowledge acquired from other scientific fields of study. It is also research that is used as part of other areas of scientific study, such as the social sciences, medical science, and behavioral science. There are many different types of research methods used to study psychological processes. Because of the nature of psychology, not all research studies are of the same type. We will talk more about experimental psychology later in this chapter. This is a field of psychological research that uses inductive reasoning and deductive reasoning in order to arrive at specific hypotheses and conclusions. There are independent variables that are changed in the experiment, which have an effect on the dependent variable. There will be other variables, called extraneous variables, some of which can be tightly controlled, while others are confounding and interfere with the interpretation of the data. Controlled variables are known and are kept constant so that only the independent variable is changed as part of the experiment. Observational studies or observational research involves the observation of behaviors. There are several types of these studies. These include participant observations, non-

participant observations, and naturalistic observations. Participant observations involve the researcher or researchers actually joining the group they are studying. Non-participation studies involve observing a group without being a participant. A variation of this is the naturalistic study, which looks at behaviors that are already in their natural environment. No researcher manipulation is done. As much as is possible, the researcher uses unobtrusive methods of observation to create a study that is ecologically valid. In all of these types of observational studies, there must be interobserver reliability so that everyone doing the observation sees basically the same thing. Intra-observational reliability involves being reliable each time by the same observer. In a naturalistic study, it is crucial to have the ability to unobtrusively observe the study group. If they know they are being observed, their behavior is likely to change, which will affect the study. Naturalistic studies can be done on animals as well as on people. The observer can study social interactions among groups of animals or humans from an appropriate distance. This is the type of study that was done by Jane Goodall when she studied primates in Africa. These types of research studies are hard to set up and are hard to control. The data are realistic but not very controllable and things like cause and effect cannot be determined. Descriptive research involves a detailed explanation of what is being observed. It involves the use of a diary that is kept by the researcher or the participant. Video or audio methods can also be used. Descriptive research studies answer the what” of a person or population by describing what is going on without getting into why it is happening. This is greatly different from experimental research because there is no hypothesis generated. Case studies are commonly used in psychological research. Freud s research was largely based on case studies of individuals with abnormal conditions. It can be used in situations where the case is unique and when there is little possibility of gathering a group of individuals with the same condition in order to do a larger study. The statistical survey is another way to do a study. It is often done on larger groups of people using an interview or questionnaire. The upside of this type of study is that it can be easily done on a lot of people. The downsides are that it introduces some type of

foreign element into the subjects lives and there is a tendency for the subjects to overreport or under-report certain things on the survey, depending on whether or not the behavior asked about is socially acceptable. Surveys can be electronically delivered, done on paper, or done in a structured interview. A sample is taken from the entire population and the data are generalized to the population. These types of studies do not take much time to do and can be delivered to a large sample size. The most accurate surveys are done anonymously. Interviews can be skewed with misinformation gotten from the participants. Archival research uses existing data in order to make specific conclusions. It can make use of a variety of existing resources, such as old surveys, past written records, and statistical data that have been collected from prior experiments. Not every conclusion in a study needs to be based on new data; archival data can be used to generate a new conclusion or theory. Cross-sectional studies are the type often used in education, social sciences, and developmental psychology. These are shorter studies that are done on people who generally share the same characteristics, such as educational background, economic status, and ethnicity but vary in one specific variable of interest. These types of studies are comparatively not as long as other studies because they are not performed over a period of time. Cross-sectional studies often examine people for a short period of time who are of different ages. It eliminates the need to study the same group of people as they progress through the different ages, as would be seen in a longitudinal study. One of the downsides is that it cannot control issues related to different generations, which do not necessarily have anything to do with the people s ages. This kind of bias is essentially eliminated by doing a longitudinal study instead. Longitudinal studies take an extended period of time. A group is selected in the beginning of the study and data points are collected over time. These can last several decades with the same things studied periodically throughout the research time period. Often, several conclusions can be made based on these types of studies.

Longitudinal studies can be done on thousands of individuals and are done to look at risk factors for different diseases. This is the kind of study done by the American Cancer Society, such as the Cancer Prevention Study. This type of research, while taking a long time to do, can be the most valuable type of study in looking at specific risk factors that do not necessarily show up immediately in the population. Cohort studies are generally done on individuals who are about the same age. Different types of studies can be done on these individuals, including cross-sectional studies and longitudinal studies. This is a way of keeping one variable (the subjects ages) the same. Unobtrusive research involves things like looking at graffiti and obituaries or other data that is left behind as part of the subjects lives. It does not involve things like surveys or interviews that would interfere with the subjects in any way. There is no experimenter bias and no selection bias that can come out of the researcher interfering with the project. The downside is that the researcher does not have the luxury of choosing the type of data available. As you can imagine, the type of research study done depends on what types of research questions are being asked. Survey research has the advantage of being able to select a large sample size. Observational studies are good but often have a much smaller sample size to study. On the other hand, surveys are limited in that they involve self-reporting, which is not always accurate. Archival studies are inexpensive but there is an inability to choose exactly the data you want to collect. Cause and effect are two things that cannot be determined by every research study. Many of the studies listed are correlational research studies that can identify a relationship between two variables but cannot select between cause and effect. Only experimental research studies can identify what is the cause and what is the effect. There are advantages and disadvantages to doing a study, such as an observational study, on a small group of individuals. The major advantage is that large amounts of information can be gathered over time. The disadvantages are that the observations are also done on individuals who have unusual characteristics so the information may not generalize to larger groups of people and the study size is small and this too might not generalize to a large group.

There are some research studies that can involve a more structured observation setting. Later on, you will hear about the Strange Situation study done on infants and attachment. In the study, the infants were observed after putting them in a specific situation involving their mother and a stranger. It was designed to assess the child s attachment style with their mother. Like all observational studies, there is a risk of observer bias in which the observer looks only for specific things and not others. Another risk is that of a lack of inter-rater reliability, which can be eliminated by using the same observer for the entire study. i

EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Experimental psychology studies have the ability to look at cause and effect. Many different aspects of psychology can be looked at with these types of studies. If you ll remember, it was Wilhelm Wundt who first used these types of experiments in the 1870s. It is the preferred type of study used by researchers in behavioral psychology. There are important things to understand about this type of research study. The first is the concept of empiricism. This means that the study must be based on things that are directly observable. In addition, all theories must be testable, which means they must be proven to be true or false. Another concept in this type of research is determinism. This means that there will always be some type of cause and effect. There should also be parsimony or simplicity, meaning that the simplest explanation for something is generally preferred. There are several types of experiments that can be performed. A crucial experiment is one in which there are several hypotheses tested at the same time with the idea that one of them will be confirmed, while the others are rejected. A pilot study is sometimes done initially in order to look for potential weaknesses in the study design and to optimize future experimentation. A field experiment is done outside of a laboratory in a more natural setting. You need to know the concepts of reliability and validity. Reliability means that the observation in the study is repeatable and consistent from time to time. This is why

subjects are often observed more than one time in order to make sure the results are always the same. Validity refers to the accuracy of the conclusions that can be made from the study. It depends on whether or not the observations are reliable. With internal validity, there are no extraneous influences on the outcome. External validity refers to the ability to generalize the conclusion of the study. Construct validity refers to whether or not the abstract principles of the hypothesis translate to observable variables. Conceptual validity is similar but refers to whether the research relates well to the theory it was supposed to test. In an experiment, there needs to be certain ways to make measurements. In nominal measurement, the numbers themselves don t really mean anything but are used to label things. Letters would otherwise do just as well. In ordinal measurement, the different pieces of data are ranked according to which things rank first, which things rank second, etcetera. Interval measurement measures the exact difference between to data points. Ratio measurement determines the ratio between sets of data points. There are different types of research designs in experimental research. In one-way designs, there is just one independent variable. Such a design is used with an experimental group and a control group, which is the simplest design possible. Factorial designs involve multiple independent variables. Sometimes the variables are linked. There are some major areas of psychology that use experimental methods of research. One of these is cognitive psychology. Remember that this studies things like learning, attention, problem solving, and memory. These can be studied in a laboratory setting. Because these things do not always involve observable behavior, functional magnetic resonance imaging or positron emission tomography can be used to map areas of the brain responsible for the processes observed. Sensation and perception are often studied with experimental psychology. Stimuli can include things related to hearing, smell, taste, proprioception, vision and touch. There are ways to measure slight differences in the perception of these things that can be used to perform the experiment.

Behavioral psychology often makes use of experimental psychology, mostly because of the direct observability of behaviors. Classical conditioning and operant conditioning both fall under the category of experimental psychology studies.

ANALYZING RESEARCH FINDINGS The goal of a research project is to find a correlation between two or more variables. A common way to measure correlation is through a correlation coefficient. This is a number that ranges from -1 to +1. A minus one correlation is a strong indication that there is a negative correlation between the variables. A plus one correlation is a strong indication that there is a positive correlation between the variables. Correlations of zero mean that there is no relationship between the variables. Things that increase in the same direction have a positive correlation, while things that go opposite to one another have a negative correlation. These things can be tested on a scatter plot. Figure 2 shows a scatter plot with a positive correlation:

Figure 2.

You need to remember that a positive correlation does not indicate a cause and effect. There could be a confounding variable that skews the interpretation of the data points. An example of this is the positive correlation between ice cream intake and crime rates. This does not mean that one of these things affects the other. Both of these things increase because of rising ambient temperatures, making temperature a confounding variable. There are also illusory correlations, which are erroneous cause and effect determinations. They come when there are unsystematic observations. The relationship between the phase of the moon and behavior is strongly believed by many people because of unsystematic observations. Actual research has disproven this relationship. In some cases, there can be a conformational bias. This is the tendency to believe illusory correlations because one ignores things that do not support one s intuition or hunches. These can lead to prejudices and discrimination. In order to determine cause and effect, you first need to have a clear and specific question and hypothesis. Often the hypothesis involves a belief that something causes something else to be the case. Does television cause violent behavior in children? This implies a cause, which is television, and effect, which is violent behavior. Then you must design your experiment. The basic experiment has two groups: the experimental group, which gets manipulated, and the control group, which does not get manipulated. You must determine what aspect of the outcome is measurable, quantifiable, and observable. You need to operationalize the findings, which means you must define, for example, what is violent behavior and what is nonviolent behavior. You need also to define how long the child must watch television to have an impact. Experimenter bias involves the possibility that the expectations of the researcher will skew the study results. This is helped by having a single-blind study, in which the experimenter does not know which child watched TV and which did not. As you remember, double-blinded studies involve no one knowing who was in the experimental group and who was in the control group. This eliminates the placebo effect, where the subject s expectations are based on getting some treatment, even if it is expected to have no impact on the outcome.

The sample that is chosen in the experiment is important. The participants need to be appropriate for the study and they ideally need to be generalizable to the general public. Sometimes you can only generalize so much and the study will not be generalizable to a wide audience. A random sample should be taken so there is no selection bias. You need to find a large enough sample size in order to make an accurate predictions about the entire population. There should also be random assignment to the experimental group or the control group. This is crucial to make sure that the two groups are roughly equal in all expects except for the independent variable that is being manipulated. In most cases, data is collected from the two groups after selection in order to verify that the groups are equivalent to one another. Failure to do this results in a selection bias. The statistical analysis is when you try to find out if there are any meaningful differences between the two selected groups. Ideally, you will look for a situation where the difference will be detected 95 out of 100 times doing the experiment. This is called the 95 percent confidence limit.

ETHICS IN PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH It is important to make sure that any research that is done meets ethical standards. Modern researchers are well aware of this but it wasn t always the case. Nowadays, there are strict standards and guidelines in place to make sure that the experiment does not cause any harm to the participants. If federal moneys are used for a research experiment, there must be an institutional review board that oversees all research involving human subjects. There needs to be approval from the IRB before the study can proceed. An informed consent needs to be signed by every study participant. In the informed consent, there must be a written description of the proposed study and what the person should expect regarding potential risks. Participants are given the opportunity to back out of the experiment at any time. Confidentiality must be assured and children under 18 years need parental consent in writing. There can be deception in the informed consent if being entirely truthful would skew the results but the deception cannot harm

the patient. If deception takes place, a debriefing must happen after the study has completed. Animal studies are not exempt from ethical concerns, even though animal subjects are often used when it is unethical to do a given experiment on humans. Studies must be designed in order to minimize distress and pain experienced by the animals in the research study. There is a separate committee that determines the ethics involved in the use of animals in psychological research.

KEY TAKEAWAYS •

There are certain steps in the scientific method that must be followed when doing psychological experiments.

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There are numerous kinds of research studies that can be performed, which have their advantages and disadvantages.

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Only experimental studies can determine the cause and effect with regard to two variables.

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There can be positive, negative, or no correlation between two variables.

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There are governing bodies that determine if a given research study is ethically possible to do on human and animal subjects.

QUIZ 1. What is true of asking a question as part of the scientific method? a. It is usually based on prior work you have done. b. It needs to be an open-ended question. c. It should be based on an observation you have made. d. It must be able to be answered by collecting data. Answer: d. The question can be of any type; however, it needs to be a question that can be answered by collecting data in your experiment. 2. In the scientific method, what is the hypothesis? a. A question you want to have answered. b. An idea of what the answer to the question is. c. The data points collected in the experiment. d. The answer proven true by the experiment. Answer: b. A hypothesis is an idea or conjecture that is what the researcher wants the answer to the question to be or what they believe the answer to the question is. 3. What is the name for the variable that is intentionally changed as part of a scientific experiment? a. Independent variable b. Controlled variable c. Confounding variable d. Dependent variable Answer: a. Ideally, the independent variable is the only variable that is changed in the experiment. Because it is the only changed variable, it is hoped that the results of the experiment are solely based on the variable that has been changed.

4. What is specifically true of a naturalistic observational study? a. The researcher participates in the group process. b. The independent variable is changed at the beginning of the study. c. There does not have to be intra-observational reliability. d. It is highly ecologically valid. Answer: d. Naturalistic studies are highly ecologically valid because it involves the unobtrusive observation of subjects in their natural state. It does not involve any type of manipulation of the environment and there is no researcher participation. 5. What type of research study is done on existing data that can be collected from past studies or existing pieces of information? a. Observational study b. Archival study c. Naturalistic study d. Longitudinal study Answer: b. An archival study is done using data that can be collected from existing sources. The downside is that the researcher cannot always find the data one wants to make use of. 6. What type of study was the Strange Situation study done to look at what type of attachment a child had with their caregiver? a. Naturalistic study b. Longitudinal study c. Cross-sectional study d. Structured observational study Answer: d. This type of study was a structured observational study in which infants were exposed to a stranger and their reactions observed.

7. What type of experiment is used to test several different hypotheses? a. Crucial experiment b. Field experiment c. Pilot study d. Cross-sectional experiment Answer: a. A crucial experiment is one that tests several different hypotheses at the same time. In general, the idea is to confirm one hypothesis and reject all of the others. 8. What type of validity in an experiment refers to the lack of extraneous variables in the study that might have confounded the conclusion? a. External validity b. Conceptual validity c. Internal validity d. Construct validity Answer: c. Internal validity depends on whether or not there are extraneous variables in the study that haven t been accounted for prior to the study. 9. What type of research study will eliminate both experimenter bias and the placebo effect? a. A single-blind study b. A double-blind study c. Neither a single-blind study nor a double-blind study will do this d. Either a single-blind study or a double-blind study can do this Answer: b. A double-blind study will eliminate both the experimenter bias and the placebo effect.

10. When in the experimental process do you deal with the 95 percent confidence limit in an experiment? a. Study design b. Sample gathering c. Random assignment d. Statistical analysis Answer: d. The statistical analysis looks for the 95 percent confidence limit, which indicates that the same findings will be found if the study was repeated 95 times out of a hundred.

CHAPTER THREE: BIOLOGY IN PSYCHOLOGY This chapter delves into the subject of biology in the study of psychology. Genetics are an important part of the biology of a human being, so this is covered in the chapter. The cells and structures of the nervous system need to be understood before you can understand the interplay between biology and psychological phenomena. An important aspect of this are the neurotransmitters that have different effects on the nervous system. All of these things are put together in the study of biopsychology, which is a major research field in psychology.

PSYCHOLOGY AND GENETICS While one wouldn t think that things like behavior, thinking, and emotions have much to do with genetics, there is evidence that the psychology of humans, being partially biologically-based, has genetic origins. For this reason, it is a good idea to understand how genetics works. In addition, some mental disorders, such as schizophrenia and bipolar disorder, have genetic origins and are carried through families. While genetics were not understood at the time of Charles Darwin, he was able to develop the theory of evolution by natural selection. In his treatises, he developed the idea that all organisms that are better suited to their environment have a better chance of surviving, passing on the genetic traits that led to their survival, and increasing the prevalence of the trait in their offspring. In a disorder like sickle cell disease, the problem is of sickling red blood cells or abnormal blood cells that can easily damage tissues and kill the patient. It has no survival advantage in the United States but, in Africa, sickle cell disease confers a better resistance to malaria. For this reason, people with the disease have an advantage over those who do not so the prevalence is increased in Africa compared to that of the US. It is clear that there is genetic variation among humans in the world. These have come about because of differences in an individual s genetic code compared to other individuals. Genetic mutations and genetic variations happen at the level of the egg and 40

sperm and at the time of fertilization. Women release one egg per month, while men release many millions of sperm each month—each of which is unique. Each egg and each sperm cell contain 23 chromosomes that are paired to make a total of 46 chromosomes. There are 22 pairs of identical somatic chromosomes and one pair of sex chromosomes. Women have two X chromosomes, while men have an X and a Y chromosome in pairs. Figure 3 shows a human karyotype, which shows all the chromosomes:

Figure 3.

Chromosomes are made out of deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA. DNA is a long string of nucleic acids, which together form a blueprint from which proteins and all other cellular structures are created. A piece of DNA is made from segments called genes; one gene encodes for one protein or one characteristic of a person. Each gene is not the same in everyone. There are variations in the genes called alleles. An allele is a specific variation in a gene. DNA is located in the nucleus of the cell. There are mechanisms that turn on some genes, while suppressing others. Genes that are turned on get copied into ribonucleic acid or RNA that sends a message outside of the nucleus to parts of the cell that make proteins. Some proteins are structural, while others are enzymes, which are proteins that do things and accelerate chemical reactions. Enzymes make all other cellular structures, such as lipids, carbohydrates, and combinations of these, such as lipoproteins and glycoproteins. The egg and sperm undergo what s called recombination in order to make sure that each of the offspring will be unique from all others (except in cases of identical twins). Each egg has a total of 23 chromosomes, which combine with the 23 chromosomes in the sperm cell to make a zygote (which is another name for a fertilized egg). The zygote has the full complement of chromosomes and has genetic material that is 50 percent made from the sperm cell and 50 percent made from the egg cell. The genotype of a cell involves the sum total of all of the genes of the cell. Every person is different but every cell has the same genotype. Cells in a person are only different because certain genes in a given cell are turned on and certain genes are turned off. The physical characteristics that can be seen or determined are the phenotype, which comes directly from what the genotype of the person is. The phenotype can have both genetic and environmental factors that determine what it is. While one gene generally codes for one protein, it often takes several genes to create a specific trait. In some cases, there is just one gene that codes for a single trait. An example of this is a cleft or dimple in the chin. The gene that codes for this is a dominant gene, meaning that it always shows up in those who have at least one copy of the gene. This means that this gene is a dominant allele. If a person has one copy of this gene,

they are said to be heterozygous for the allele. If they have two copies of the same allele, they are said to be homozygous for the allele. A person who is heterozygous or homozygous for a cleft chin has a cleft chin, regardless of their status. The reverse is not true in cases of a smooth chin. Because a smooth chin is a recessive or nondominant allele, the person must be homozygous in order to have a smooth chin. A person homozygous for a dominant allele will always pass on one of their alleles to their offspring so all of their offspring will have it. If they are heterozygous, half the time they will pass on the recessive allele, so they will not pass on the trait. In genetics, a Punnett square is a scientific tool that helps to predict what percent of offspring will have a certain trait. The dominant allele is represented by a capital letter and the recessive allele is represented by a lowercase letter. If a person is homozygous for a trait, they will have two of the same letters in their genotype, while if they are heterozygous, one letter will be uppercase and the other will be lowercase. Figure 4 shows what a Punnett square looks like:

Figure 4.

Some diseases have dominant alleles, meaning that, if a person is heterozygous for the disease, they will pass it on to half of their offspring. If they mate with another person who has the same heterozygous genotype, three-fourths of the offspring will have the disease. The disease that is recessive is only passed down if the offspring is homozygous for the recessive trait. People who are heterozygous for a recessive trait are called carriers for the trait. Besides the usual somatic alleles and autosomal dominant or autosomal recessive diseases, there are some diseases that are linked to the female X chromosome. While there are rare x-linked dominant diseases and rare y-linked diseases, the vast majority of these will be x-linked recessive. Color-blindness and hemophilia are x-linked recessive diseases. They are far more common in boys because boys lack a normal second X chromosome and only have one of these. The vast majority of autosomal dominant diseases are not lethal. If they were lethal, these individuals would not pass down the gene to any offspring and the trait would ultimately die out. An exception to this is Huntington disease, which is autosomal dominant and fatal. The problem with this disease is that it does not manifest itself until after childbearing years so, unless a person gets tested for the disease early in life and decides not to have children, the disease is passed on before the person knows they have it. Most harmful genes occur because of a mutation. A mutation is a permanent alteration to a gene. It happens when there is an error in copying a gene. The error can lead to a defective protein or to the lack of any workable protein. This can lead to a lethal situation, a harmful situation, or potentially to something that is beneficial to the offspring. Variation in general is useful to a population so that not all individuals will be affected the same way by diseases or changes in the environment. This ensures the survival of the species by allowing the most adaptable individuals to survive. Genes always interact with the environment so that the environment partially determines exactly how and when the genes express themselves. A person can, for example, have a genetic makeup that involves high intelligence. The expression of that intelligence, however, depends on what environment that individual is raised in. Genes

describe the person s potential range of reaction to the environment, but it takes the environment in order to maximize that reaction. Also because of gene/environmental interactions, there will be differences in what happens physically and mentally to identical twins. Identical twins have the same genetic makeup or the same genotype but, because of the influence of the environment, they can have slightly different appearances and can get different diseases. Fraternal twins are different. They come from different eggs and different sperm cells so they are essentially no more related than siblings. Do the genes affect more than just physical characteristics? According to research, yes, they do. Genes seem to be able to help to determine sexual orientation, personality traits, temperament, and even the propensity toward spirituality. Temperament affects a person s risk for schizophrenia and depression, which also seem to have genetic origins. With regard to many of these psychological disorders, however, the environment also plays a role.

PARTS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM The nervous system is very complex, but plays a huge role in psychology and psychiatry. It is for this reason that you need to study the different aspects of the anatomy and physiology of the nervous system. There are certain psychological diseases that have a large neurological influence so you need to understand just how the nervous system works. Like all systems of the body, the nervous system is made from cells. There are two major types of cells in the nervous system, divided broadly into neurons and glial cells. Neurons are the main functional cells of the nervous system. They are electrically active and send signals along processes called axons and dendrites that pass a message to other neurons so that the related parts of the nervous system can work together. Figure 5 shows the basic structure of a neuron:

Figure 5.

Neurons do not work alone but need supporting cells. These supporting cells are called glial cells or glia. There are several types of supporting cells that perform different functions in the nervous system. Astrocytes are glial cells that protect and support the neurons. Schwann cells and oligodendrocytes make myelin, which speeds the transmission of the nerve impulse. Microglia are the immune system cells of the nervous system. Neurons have a specific structure. There are 100 billion neurons in newborns. The neuron is surrounded by a semipermeable membrane. A semipermeable membrane will allow some molecules, usually small ones, to pass through while restricting other molecules, usually large ones, from getting through. There are mechanisms in place to allow the different molecule types to pass into or out of the membrane. The main part of the neuron is called the soma or cell body. It contains all the tiny organelles inside the cell. Projections from the soma include the dendrites and axons. Dendrites tend to be shorter, greater in number, nonmyelinated, and receive impulses from other neurons (although this is not an absolute). Axons tend to be longer, often myelinated, and fewer in number. Axons tend to send impulses away from the neuron to another neuron.

At the end of each axon are many different termini or terminal buttons, which participate in making a synapse. A synapse is a tiny connection between two neurons or between a neuron and a muscle cell. Synapses are not direct connections between the two cells but involve a space between the cells called the synaptic cleft. The synaptic cleft is where the synaptic vesicles in the pre-synaptic neuron send neurotransmitters out into the space in order to be picked up by receptors on the postsynaptic cell. Figure 6 shows a synapse:

Figure 6.

Myelin is an important part of the axon of the neuron. It is a fatty substance that insulates the axon so as to speed up the transmission of the neuronal impulse. The disease called multiple sclerosis is an autoimmune disease that destroys the myelin in the body. Neurons act much more slowly without myelin, leading to a variety of nerverelated symptoms that can often end in death. We will talk more about neurons in a minute. For now, you need to know that neurons are chemical messengers that are sent across the synaptic cleft during nerve transmission. They fit with specific receptors that only bind to one type of neurotransmitter. When the neurotransmitter gets locked onto a receptor, it will allow for a change in the postsynaptic cell that passes on to include things like electrical

activation of the postsynaptic cell. There are various methods to recycle or get rid of the neurotransmitter after its job is done. Recycling of the neuron is called reuptake”. Neurons have a semipermeable membrane just like all cells but these are electrically active. There is what is called a resting potential, which is a difference in the electrical charge when comparing the inside and outside of the cell. When a nerve cell is activated, sodium, which is positively charged, can pass into the membrane, changing the membrane potential. Potassium, at the same time, passes out of the cell. At some point, the change in charge across the neuron membrane reaches a certain level, called the threshold of excitation. This activates the cell and the electrical changes, which are essentially chemical changes, pass along the nerve cell. There are mechanisms in place that pump sodium out of the cell and potassium into the cell so that the membrane reaches its resting potential. Figure 7 shows the action potential being reached in the cell:

Figure 7.

There will be a refractory period after the cell has returned to its resting potential that means the cell can temporarily be unable to be activated again. The action potential is the electrical potential that moves down the cell axon or dendrite when the cell is activated. This is an all or none phenomena so the neuron is either activated or it is not.

PARTS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM There are two major divisions of the nervous system. These are the central nervous system or CNS and the peripheral nervous system or PNS. The CNS is basically just the brain and the spinal cord, while the PNS is the rest of the nervous system—namely, the peripheral nerves. Most of the peripheral nerves are axons that travel in bundles called nerves throughout the body. There are large and small nerves. There are also clusters of nerve cell bodies in the peripheral nervous system called ganglia. There are two subdivisions of the peripheral nervous system. These are the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system. The somatic nervous system consists of nerves that can be motor nerves or sensory nerves. Sensory nerves pick up signals from the environment and send the signal to the central nervous system to be processed. These are referred to as afferent nerves because they go into the body. Motor nerves are efferent nerves that send signals out of the central nervous system to the muscles that move in response to voluntary thought or in response to a sensory signal. There are interneurons within the central nervous system that can connect two different types of nerves together. The autonomic nervous system is very important to psychology because its involuntary activities can be strongly influenced by stress and one s emotions. There are two subdivisions of the autonomic nervous system. These are the somewhat opposite systems of the sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system. Their function is to maintain the homeostasis or equilibrium of the body. Figure 8 shows the different activities of the autonomic nervous system branches:

Figure 8.

The sympathetic nervous system is the active system in the body s fight or flight response. This is what happens when the body is facing a real or imagined threat. There are several things that happen. The pupils dilate, the mouth dries up, the heart rate increases and the bronchial tree dilates opening the lungs. Digestion and the contraction of the bladder become inhibited. The parasympathetic nervous system is the system related to rest and digestion. The pupils constrict and salivation increases. The heart rate slows down and the bronchi constrict. Digestion is stimulated and the bladder contracts. As you can imagine, the sympathetic nervous system occurs during high-arousal situations, which used to be more adaptive among hunter-gatherer people who needed this system when facing game hunting or the threat of predators. It is less adaptive today and becomes activated when we are faced with increased stressors in our environment. It simply is less common today that we face a real-life threat and more common to activate this system when dealing with everyday stressful events. If activated too much, it can lead to negative health consequences. The central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord. The brain consists of billions of neurons and glial cells. There are two halves or hemispheres in the brain,

which is also divided into several lobes. Each lobe has a specific function, although the lobes interact with one another. The spinal cord is connected to the brain through the brainstem. It consists of many tracts that send signals up and down the spinal cord to and from the brain and peripheral nerves. There are some automatic reflexes that do not reach the conscious brain but are instead processed in the spinal cord itself. These include things like the knee jerk reflex and the automatic withdrawal when touching something hot or painful. The surface of the brain is called the cerebral cortex. It consists of folds called gyri and grooves called sulci. These are basically landmarks that define the different parts of the brain. The deepest sulcus is called the longitudinal fissure, which is what separates the two hemispheres of the brain. The brain is generally lateralized, which means that the different halves of the brain are responsible for different things. The left hemisphere mostly controls the right side of the body and vice versa with the right hemisphere. The corpus callosum is a thick bundle of nerves that connect the two hemispheres. The largest part of the brain is referred to as the forebrain. It consists of the cerebrum, which is the biggest section of the brain, and subcortical structures, such as the thalamus, pituitary gland, structures of the limbic system, and the hypothalamus. The cerebral cortex is the thinking part of the brain. It is what gives us consciousness, reasoning, memory, and language. There are four lobes that make up the cerebrum. Figure 9 shows the different lobes of the brain:

Figure 9.

The different lobes of the brain are called the frontal lobe, the parietal lobe, the occipital lobe, and the temporal lobe. You should know the basic functions of each lobe. The frontal lobe is associated with emotions, motor control, language, and reasoning. It is where the motor cortex is located and it has the prefrontal cortex, which is concerned with higher-order cognitive processing. Broca s area is found in the frontal lobe; it is necessary for the production of intelligible speech. The parietal lobe is found behind the frontal lobe. It processes sensory information. Part of the parietal lobe is the somatosensory cortex, which processes all sorts of sensory information, such as temperature, touch, and pain sensation. The temporal lobe is on the side of the head. It is strongly associated with hearing, emotions, memory, and some parts of language. It contains Wernicke s area, which is essential for speech comprehension. People with defects in this area can produce speech but it is often unintelligible and there is little ability to understand speech. The auditory cortex is located in the temporal lobe and is concerned with hearing. The occipital lobe is found at the back of the brain. It contains the primary visual cortex, which helps to interpret visual information. Defects in this part of the brain will lead to cortical blindness, even though the eyes themselves are normal. 52

The thalamus is located deeper within the brain than the cerebral cortex. It provides the sensory relay system for all of the senses except for the sense of smell. It can be thought of as a routing system for sensory input from the periphery of the body. The limbic system is best thought of as the source of many of our emotions but it also deals with memory. The sense of smell does not go through the thalamus but instead goes through the limbic system, which explains why smell has such an emotional impact. The three structures of the limbic system are the amygdala, the hypothalamus, and the hippocampus. The hippocampus is crucial for memory and learning. The amygdala helps to make sense out of the emotions one experiences. The hypothalamus helps to regulate appetite, body temperature, and blood pressure. It also has endocrine function. Deeper within the brain is the midbrain. These parts of the brain are largely out of conscious control. In the midbrain is the reticular formation that helps to control arousal, the sleep/wake cycle, motor activity, and alertness. Also, in the midbrain is the substantia nigra and the ventral tegmental area, which produce the neurotransmitter called dopamine, which is used to control certain aspects of movement. These area and dopamine are involved with reward, mood, and addiction. The hindbrain is the back and deepest part of the brain. Within the hindbrain are the pons, medulla, and cerebellum. The medulla has centers for many unconscious processes, such as blood pressure, heart rate, and breathing. The pons connects the brain to the spinal cord and is active in regulating the activity of the brain during sleep. The cerebellum is crucial for certain aspects of movement, such as coordination, balance, and adequate motor skills. Procedural memory, such as the ability to ride a bike and other tasks, are associated with the cerebellum.

BRAIN IMAGING In some cases, brain imaging is used to study brain disorders and in brain and psychological research. Some of the imaging techniques include computerized tomography or CT scanning. This is a common brain imaging technique for strokes and other brain disorders. It uses a computer and x-rays in order to get images of the brain that are generally seen as cross-sectional images. Positron emission tomography or PET scanning uses a radioactive tracer that can identify metabolically active areas of the brain. It does involve some type of radioactivity exposure and can be used in things like research into schizophrenia. It doesn t give a very clear picture of the brain but can locate where certain neurotransmitters are active. Figure 10 shows a PET scan image of the brain:

Figure 10.

In magnetic resonance imaging or MRI scanning, a computer and a very strong magnetic field are used to locate images inside the brain. It can give a very detailed image of the brain that can locate tumors, strokes, and other abnormalities. Another related technique is called functional MRI scanning, which tracks oxygen and blood flow levels in the brain. It gives greater detail than can be found with a PET scan and is commonly used in psychological research and psychological disorders.

Electroencephalography or EEG is a way of determining the electrical activity of the brain. It is used sometimes to evaluate individuals with sleep disorders and is used to detect the presence of seizure disorders.

THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM The endocrine system can be important in the study of psychology. The basic messengers of the endocrine system are hormones, which are similar to neurotransmitters except that they act at a distance. There are hormone receptors just as is seen with neurotransmitters but pass through the bloodstream in order to reach the target organ. In addition, the activity is not as fast as is seen with neurotransmitters and there is often a negative feedback system that turn off production of the hormone when the concentration is considered high enough. Figure 11 illustrates the major organs of the endocrine system:

Figure 11.

There are many organs that are a part of the endocrine system. Many are controlled in part by the actions of the pituitary gland and hypothalamus. Many bodily functions are regulated by the endocrine system and its hormones. The pituitary gland is sometimes considered to be the master gland because it has so many hormones that ultimately regulate other endocrine glands. The pituitary gland is itself under the control of the hypothalamus in the brain. The thyroid gland is located in the front of the neck. It is important in appetite, metabolism, and growth. There are diseases of an overactive thyroid that results in increased metabolism as well as diseases of an underactive thyroid gland, which greatly slows metabolism. Medications and surgery can help to balance these thyroid disorders. Some psychological disorders are directly linked to problems with an overactive or underactive thyroid gland. The other major glands in the endocrine system include the adrenal glands, which makes stress hormones, including those responsible for the fight or flight response, the pancreas, which regulates blood sugar levels, the pineal gland, which makes melatonin as part of the Circadian rhythm of the body, and the gonads, which make the sex hormones responsible for sexual maturation and sexual behaviors.

NEUROTRANSMITTERS There are dozens of neurotransmitters in the nervous system. As mentioned, they act across synapses in order to send a signal to another neuron, a muscle cell, or some type of endocrine gland. Neurotransmitters tend to be small molecules, often made from amino acid precursors, after which they are synthesized into their final form. They are stored in presynaptic vesicles close to the axon terminal so they can be released into the synaptic cleft. When they are released into the synapse, they cross the small space and attach to specific receptors, initiating an action potential in the postsynaptic cell. Neurotransmitters can be excitatory and will turn on the target cell s action or inhibitory, which means it will block the target cell s action. If excitation exceeds inhibition, the neuron will be activated and will fire an action potential. 56

There are different types of neurotransmitters. These include those based on amino acids, those that are gaseous, monoamines, peptides, catecholamines, purines, and trace amines. One major excitatory neurotransmitter is glutamate, the most prevalent neurotransmitter. Another highly prevalent neurotransmitter is GABA, which stands for gamma-aminobutyric acid. This is largely inhibitory. Most psychoactive drugs will act specifically on neurotransmitter systems and many drugs of abuse act on the dopamine system, such as amphetamines and cocaine. Opioid drugs act on opioid receptors of the brain. The following is a partial list of important neurotransmitters: •

Glutamate—this is the major excitatory neurotransmitter that can lead to seizures or strokes if it is overactive in the body.

•

GABA—this is the major inhibitory neurotransmitter and is mimicked by many sedative and hypnotic drugs.

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Acetylcholine—this is the major neurotransmitter that acts at the neuromuscular junction in order to activate musculature activity.

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Dopamine—this is important in motivation, the experience of pleasure, emotional arousal, and motor function. High levels have been implicated in schizophrenia.

•

Serotonin—this is a major intestinal neurotransmitter and affects things like mood, behavior, sleep, appetite, learning memory, and body temperature. Low levels have been implicated in depression.

There are several diseases that are believed to be related to imbalances of certain neurotransmitters in the brain. Some examples of these include the following: 1. Dopamine—low levels are seen in Parkinson’s disease, while high levels are seen is schizophrenia and ADHD (attention deficit hyperactive disorder). Addiction is strongly related to the dopamine system. Opioid drugs and methamphetamine will increase dopamine levels, leading to a pleasurable feeling. 2. Serotonin—low levels may or may not be associated with depression but selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) will increase serotonin and will help improve depressive symptoms. 57

3. Glutamate—there is a tentative link between glutamate levels and diseases like obsessive compulsive disorder, autism, depression, schizophrenia, multiple sclerosis, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, and both Parkinson disease and Alzheimer’s disease.

BIOPSYCHOLOGY Biopsychology is also referred to as psychobiology, behavioral neuroscience, and biological psychology. It focuses mainly on the interplay between biology and psychological phenomena. Early biological psychologists include William James, Charles Bell, and William Harvey. A great deal of research takes place in the field of biopsychology. Many of these research experiments involve animals like mice, rats, and monkeys because they can be studied better from a biological perspective. Much of the research is related to experimental psychology, in which there are experiments performed that involve independent and dependent variables. In some cases, lesions are created in the animal brain in order to describe a behavioral response. Electrical stimulation can also be used to enhance certain brain areas in order to observe a response. Neural and motor responses in animals can also be measured. The ultimate goal in doing this kind of research is to help uncover the biological basis of many psychiatric and psychological disorders. Through biopsychology research, diseases like Parkinson s disease, Huntington disease, schizophrenia, autism, and depression can be better understood.

KEY TAKEAWAYS •

The understanding of many diseases depends on knowing the basics of human genetics and how different traits are inherited.

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The nervous system is divided into the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system.

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The autonomic nervous system involves the unconscious activities of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system.

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Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers that act across the synaptic cleft between neurons and other neurons or muscle cells.

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Hormones act across long distances to have an effect on distant target organs.

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The endocrine system is important in many homeostatic mechanisms in the body.

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Biopsychology looks at the interplay between biology and psychological phenomena.

QUIZ 1. How many pairs of human chromosomes are there? a. 20 b. 23 c. 46 d. 52 Answer: b. Each organism has its own number of chromosomes. Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes, which add to a total of 46 chromosomes. Of these 22 chromosome pairs are somatic and 1 pair is the sex chromosomes. 2. What is a variation in a gene called? a. Allele b. Chromosome c. DNA d. RNA Answer: a. An allele is a variation in a gene. Different alleles are what makes a person unique because they will encode for different proteins and different traits in a given person. 3. What best defines an asymptomatic carrier for a given trait? a. A person who is homozygous for a dominant trait b. A person who is heterozygous for a dominant trait c. A person who is homozygous for a recessive trait d. A person who is heterozygous for a recessive trait Answer: d. The person who is heterozygous for a recessive trait will not have the disease but will be a carrier for it, meaning they will pass the trait onto half of their offspring. Only if they mate with an individual who has the recessive trait in some form will there be a possibility of having a child who has the recessive disease.

4. What is the most common sex-linked disease? a. X-linked dominant b. X-linked recessive c. Y-linked dominant d. Y-linked recessive Answer: b. An X-linked recessive disease is the most common sexlinked disease. Things like colorblindness and hemophilia are x-linked recessive diseases. 5. What is the chemical messenger called that enters the synapse during a cellto-cell transmission of a message? a. Postsynaptic receptor b. Neurotransmitter c. Synaptic vesicle d. Terminal button Answer: b. A neurotransmitter is a chemical messenger that goes into the synaptic cleft in order to send a message by binding to a postsynaptic receptor on the receiving or postsynaptic cell. 6. What is the name given to the potential across a nerve cell when it is not activated? a. Threshold of activation b. Action potential c. Membrane potential d. Resting potential Answer: d. When a neuron is in its resting state of readiness, it is not activated and is said to be at its resting potential. When activated, it generates an action potential.

7. Which lobe of the brain is most associated with sensory processing? a. Parietal b. Temporal c. Frontal d. Occipital Answer: a. The parietal lobe is associated with sensory processing. It contains the somatosensory cortex that handles input related to pain, touch, and temperature functions of the body. 8. Which lobe of the brain is most associated with the auditory cortex that helps with hearing? a. Parietal b. Temporal c. Frontal d. Occipital Answer: b. The temporal lobe is located on the side of the head. It contains the auditory cortex, which is associated with hearing. 9. What is the major excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain? a. Dopamine b. Serotonin c. Glutamate d. GABA Answer: c. Glutamate is the major neurotransmitter in the brain and is largely an excitatory neurotransmitter.

10. Low levels of which neurotransmitter have been implicated in the development of depression? a. Dopamine b. Acetylcholine c. Glutamate d. Serotonin Answer: d. Serotonin has many activities in the brain and body. Low levels of serotonin have been implicated in the development of depression and drugs that increase serotonin will improve depression.

CHAPTER FOUR: LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT This chapter is about lifespan development. There are several researchers who have developed theories on lifespan development, which are explained in the chapter. The different stages of development, from the prenatal stage to stages of advanced age, are covered in this chapter. Finally, issues related to death and dying as well as the different stages of grief are explained as part of the chapter.

INTRODUCTION As you will see in this chapter, there are many theories on human development from a social, biological, and emotional perspective. The focus on developmental psychology is how individuals change over time. You should ask yourself is human development is continuous or stepwise, happening in spurts. Does everyone go through the same developmental stages? What is the interplay between genetics and environment on human development? Those who believe that development is continuous say that each aspect of development improves on preexisting skill sets. Change is gradual over time. Those who believe in discontinuous development indicate that there are specific stages that are largely dependent on the age of the person going through the developmental stage. In discontinuous development, age is an important factor in what the individual is going through. Another question often asked is whether development is the same for everyone. Do genetics and environment alter the course of a child s development. Are there similarities and differences in the way individuals develop in different cultures? What is the role of genetics in childhood development? Most of the data suggest that childhood milestones are roughly the same throughout the world, with some slight differences in development based on the environment. Finally, there is a question as to which factor, nature or nurture, plays a bigger role in child development. Nature involves biology and genetics, which would indicate that 64

things like nurture, which are environmental and cultural influences, play a lesser role. Certain traits are known to be inherited but is the same true of psychological characteristics?

THEORIES ON LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT There are several theories on lifespan development. According to Sigmund Freud, personality first develops in early childhood. It was believed that development was discontinuous, with different stages of development. If an individual did not pass a certain stage, they were stuck there. The stages were based on psychosocial development with a focus on different pleasure-seeking areas of the body, such as oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital stages. Freud s theories were not ever supported by modern research but many believe in the basic principles. The oral stage is from birth to one year. Libido is centered on the mouth and the child will put things in their mouth. There is breastfeeding, sucking, and biting. Next is the anal stage, from one to three years. There is a great pleasure in defecation. The child is someone individuated and has developed an ego. The major issue is potty training, which can affect later adulthood. The next stage is the phallic stage, with masturbation and the knowledge of sex differences. There can be erotic attraction to one parent. Boys develop the Oedipus complex and have castration anxiety but identifies with their father. Girls develop penis envy and wish to be boys. They can develop the Electra complex. The latency stage is from six years to puberty, when the libido is dormant. Sexual energy is sublimated toward friendship, hobbies, and school-related activities. Finally, there is the genital stage, which starts in puberty and continues through adulthood. There is focus on normal sexual relationships and on heterosexual pleasure with another individual. Sexual intercourse is prominent. Erik Erickson developed the psychosocial theory, which was based on social development. He felt that personality is shaped through one s lifespan. Interaction with others is what develops the sense of self or what s called the ego identity”. There are

eight stages of development, from infancy through the time of late adulthood. There are conflicts or tasks that need resolution. The first stage of development is trust, which comes in infancy. Infants need to develop trust and they do so with their primary caregivers. If this is not met, there are feelings of fear, anxiety, and mistrust. In the toddler years, children develop preferences. Their main task is autonomy versus shame and doubt. They gather increased independence. In the preschool age years, children increase their social interactions. The task that needs resolving is initiative versus guilt. Self-confidence is gained if the task is mastered. In elementary school, the main task is industry versus inferiority. Children start to compare themselves with others and develop pride in their work and play activities. If they do not succeed, there is inadequacy and inferiority. In adolescence, the task is identity versus role confusion as well as the development of the sense of self. Values and beliefs are established. If not successful, there will be a weakening of the sense of self. Early adulthood involves intimacy versus isolation. There is a tendency to want to share one s life with others. This stage requires a strong sense of self that has been achieved in adolescence. Those who have not developed this will feel emotional isolation and loneliness. Individuals who are between 40 and the mid-60s will have generative versus stagnation as the major task. It involves finding the individual s self-worth and contributing to other people s development. Children are being raised and mentoring is accomplished. If this is not done, there is stagnation and little interest in one s productivity. From the mid-60s through to the end of one s life, this is late adulthood. The task is integrity versus despair. There is reflection on one s life and a sense of either failure or satisfaction. Individuals can be proud of their accomplishments or can develop regrets with a focus on what could have been. Those who do not master this stage have depression, bitterness, and despair. Jean Piaget also studied child development based on cognitive theory. He felt that cognition or thinking in children was important. He felt that children in general were extremely inquisitive but do not think like adults nor can they adequately reason. There 66

are specific stages of cognitive development that are discontinuous. Piaget used the term schemata which were mental models that children use to make sense of the world. Children will assimilate and accommodate new information. Assimilation involves taking in information based on what they already know, while accommodation is the time period when they develop new schemata. The different stages include the sensorimotor stage, from infancy to two years of age. Children develop object constancy and stranger anxiety. During the preoperational stage of 2 to 6, there is pretend play, language development, and egocentrism. During the concrete operational stage between 7 and 11, there is mathematical transformation and conservation. In ages 12 and up, there is the formal operational stage, where there is abstract logic and moral reasoning. There are some criticisms to Piaget s work. Individuals believe that the stages are more continuous than Piaget has suggested. In addition, others suggest these stages are achieved earlier than Piaget has suggested. Still others suggest a fifth stage, called the postformal stage, in which logic is more integrated with emotion and contexts are taken into account. Adults and teens, based on these stages, think differently in emotionally charged situations. Problem-solving is better in adulthood than in adolescence. The psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg took Piaget s stages and added stages of moral development. He studied moral development by posing certain moral arguments to children of different ages. There are different stages of moral reasoning, the highest of which is only reached by a few people. In pre-conventional morality, there is obedience and punishment, followed by behavior that is reinforced by rewards and personal self-interest. In conventional morality, behavior is driven by social approval as well as obeying authority. In post-conventional morality, behavior is driven by a balance of individual rights and social order. It later becomes driven by moral principles. What you should know is that, what a person says they would do in a situation is not what they actually do.

DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES Development actually begins prenatally and extends through life. In prenatal development, there are three physiological stages: germinal, embryonic, and fetal. The baby develops differently during each of these stages. In the germinal stage, which is at 1 to 2 weeks gestation, conception occurs with the fertilization of the egg to form a zygote. The zygote is a single-celled structure with a certain genetic makeup. The zygote will divide through mitosis to make four, eight, sixteen, and more cells. Fewer than half of all zygotes will survive past this stage. Cells gradually become more specialized in order to form certain tissues and organs. The germinal stage is prior to implantation. The embryonic stage is from weeks three through eight. It starts with implantation and the formation of the placenta, which connects the embryo to the uterine wall. The basic structures will develop, such as the head, chest, and abdominal cavity. Immature organs form and the heart beats. The brain and spinal cord develop. In the fetal stage, weeks 9 through 40, the embryo becomes a fetus. The tail disappears and the sex organs develop. There is maturation of all of the major organs, including the brain. Senses such as hearing and the sensation of pain develop and the size of the fetus increases dramatically. Figure 12 shows the different stages of fetal development:

Figure 12.

There are both genetic and environmental influences on fetal and embryonic development. This is the time for good prenatal care so that the environment is optimal for the fetus. In some cases, women should have preconception care in order to maximize the woman s health before she becomes pregnant. There are also influences of teratogens, which are environmental agents that can damage or kill the embryo or fetus. One such teratogen is alcohol. Alcohol consumption in pregnancy can lead to fetal alcohol syndrome, which can be severe enough to have a lifelong impact on the child. Facial features and head size can be affected, with an increased risk of low IQs and ADHD (attention deficit hyperactivity disorder). With each teratogen, there will be a sensitive or critical period that will be when the teratogen is most dangerous. In many cases, this will be early in the pregnancy, when

things like facial and heart development are taking place. Certain teratogens will affect the brain, which continues to develop throughout the prenatal period. The next stage in development is infancy. The newborn will have certain newborn reflexes that are lost shortly after birth. Some of these reflexes are adaptive, such as the rooting and sucking reflexes. Other reflexes are interesting but have no real purpose. Infants have good senses of smell, touch, and hearing but do not have good vision. They will prefer human faces and certain voices and can detect the smell of their mother. Physical development is rapid from infancy to early childhood. Height and weight increase dramatically and there is a constant improvement in small and large motor skills. Language develops during this time and also progresses rapidly. Growth will slow somewhat between four and six years of age but increases after that in girls. Girls growth outpaces the growth of boys until they reach puberty, which happens sooner in girls compared to boys. While there is no increase in brain cells after birth, these brain cells will mature and store increasing amounts of information in childhood. Blooming is the phenomenon of rapid neural growth in childhood. After blooming, there is pruning, which involves a reduction in neural connections. This is believed to help the brain be more efficient for mastering complex skills. Both blooming and pruning happen during childhood and up until adolescence. There are two types of motor skills—both of which involve the movement of the body. Fine motor skills involve things like writing and handling small objects, usually with the hands. Gross motor skills happen with large muscle groups and involve things like running, jumping, and staying balanced. There are specific motor skill milestones that need to be reached by a certain age if the child is developing normally. Mile stones such as sitting happen at around six months of age. Crawling occurs at around nine months of age, and walking develops by one year of age. Older children can kick balls, walk up and down stairs, pedal a bicycle, use scissors, and catch a ball. There are language and cognitive skills that develop in infancy, as a toddler, and in the preschool years.

Language skills are part of cognitive development that can be easily studied. Babies have certain preverbal language skills and can gesture before they learn words. Eventually, the attain different levels of speech, which is completely consistent across different cultures and populations of the world. First words that have meaning happen at around 12 months of age, even though they do not always resemble the correct adult word. Language is both innate and develops through interactions with others. Psychosocial development involves forming healthy attachments to others, which usually occurs during infancy. There are differences in attachment between children raised in different environments. Research on infant monkeys indicated that they preferred a soft surrogate monkey that did not deliver milk versus a wire monkey that delivered milk. John Bowlby developed theories on attachment, which is the affectional bond that the baby has with its mother. It must develop before there can be normal emotional and social development. Secure attachment is what is strived for with every baby but babies who are abused or neglected do not see it that way. The Strange Situation study looked at how children responded to a stranger in the room both with and without the mother. Four types of attachment were described: secure attachment, avoidant attachment, resistant attachment, and disorganized attachment. The most common type is secure attachment, in which the mother is looked to for comfort. In avoidant attachment, the child is unresponsive to the parent and treats the stranger the same way. In resistant attachment, the child clings to the mother and cannot explore the room. They later become angry with the mother for leaving, which stems from inconsistent responses to the child. Disorganized attachment is seen in abused children, who sometimes run away when the mother returns to the room. Children at about 18 months of age develop a self-concept and see themselves as different from the baby they see in the mirror. They will increase their social behavior so that they learn to share and cooperate with other children. By age 4, there is little separation anxiety and an increased identification of themselves as a member of a group. School age children will compare themselves with their peers. What starts as toddlers gets more fully developed as teenagers.

There are four styles of parenting that contribute to self-concept. With an authoritative style, there are reasonable demands and relatively consistent limits. With an authoritarian style, there is little warmth and great emphasis on obedience and conformity. This often leads to unhappy and anxious children. With permissive parenting, the parents let the kids do what they want and make few demands on the child, rarely using any type of punishment. These children lack selfdiscipline and often don t do as well in school, having an increased risk of risky behaviors. The uninvolved parenting style is linked to neglectfulness, usually because of severe depression. The child is at risk for being fearful and withdrawn, with poor school performance and a risk of substance abuse.

ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT Adolescence usually begins at puberty and ends when the teen emerges into adulthood. There is increased independence from one s family of origins and ongoing physical psychosocial, and cognitive development. Puberty is a time of great physical changes, with the development of secondary sexual characteristics, such as breast and facial hair development. Girls will have menarche or the onset of periods and boys will have spermarche or the ability to ejaculate at 13 to 14 years of age, usually. There is a rapid height increase in both boys and girls, based on nature and nurture issues. Girls who mature too early can have substance abuse, depression, and eating disorders. Children who mature too late will also have a risk of depression. There is blooming of the brain in the frontal lobe before puberty with increasing risktaking and emotionality in teens after puberty. Complex thinking happens during adolescence because of an increase in the efficiency of the brain. Abstract thinking develops with the onset of formal operational thought processes. They can think in terms of multiple viewpoints and hypotheticals. They develop cognitive empathy so they can understand the perspective of others. There is an increased emphasis on identity and on figuring out who they are and what they want to be. This causes them to pull away from their parents and toward peer 72

groups. Some teens will have major conflicts with their parents, while most will have just minor disagreements. Emerging adulthood occurs between 18 and the mid-20s. There is an increased focus on love and work. While a person is legally an adult in the US at 18 years, what is defined as an adult varies greatly between cultures. Some of this is changing now that individuals need more schooling in order to be established in the workforce.

ADULTHOOD This starts at about 20 and proceeds through early, middle, and late stages. Physical maturation is complete and peak physical ability happens in early adulthood. There may be some weight gain, especially if muscle mass is increased or if a woman has children. Middle adulthood is when there is physical decline. There will be some wrinkling and decreased visual acuity. Fertility declines in women, who develop menopause at around age 50 years. Weight gain is likely to happen and hair begins to turn gray. This stage is between about 40 and 65 years of age. Late adulthood happens after 65 years. There is decrease in muscle strength and in the basic senses. The brain may not react the same with an increase in disorders like Alzheimer s dementia. In most cases, however, cognitive abilities will stay the same or improve with time. Staying mentally and physically active will decrease the declines that can be seen in cognitive abilities.

DEATH AND DYING Death is, of course, the end of life. Death is viewed differently among different people and different cultures. It has been in the last 50 years that hospices were developed in order to help individuals die in a humane and comfortable environment. Many people now die in their home or in a hospice setting. The patient and family can be more supported during what is an extremely difficult time.

Some people have a living will or advance directive that states what their wishes are when they face a medical situation that they cannot at the time state their personal wishes. This can include a do not resuscitate order or DNR so that extreme steps aren t taken if the patient s heart stops and they cannot breathe. Many patients and families go through a grieving process when faced with dying or the death of a loved one. There are five stages of grief as defined by Elizabeth Kubler-Ross. Not everyone goes through each stage and the stages may not always be in the same order but they provide a guideline as to how the grieving process happens. These are the different stages of grief: •

Denial—this is often the first stage. The person may be numb and may deny the facts. They may believe that a mistake has occurred and may be in shock. The feelings hide those that lie underneath.

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Anger—this is often the second stage. There may be blaming of others or anger in God. It is an uncomfortable but necessary part of the healing process. The patient or family member may feel all alone in the world.

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Bargaining—this is when the person thinks about bargaining with God or may think that, if they had done something differently, a different outcome would have happened.

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Depression—this is another common manifestation of grief. The person may withdraw and may not want to get out of bed. Feelings of hopelessness are common.

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Acceptance—this is the feeling that things are probably going to be okay. There is a new reality that the individual has come to terms with. There may be increased social engagement in this stage.

KEY TAKEAWAYS •

There are different theories on development to include psychosexual, psychosocial, and cognitive theories of childhood development.

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Development begins in the prenatal period with germinal, embryonic, and fetal stages.

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A great many changes in cognition, language, and motor skills happen in the first few years of life.

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The developmental stages in adulthood start at age 20 and go through the young, middle, and older age groups.

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There are typically five stages of grief associated with the death and dying process.

QUIZ 1. What is the most important determination in what developmental stage the person is going through during discontinuous development? a. Gender b. Age c. Prior experience d. Intellect Answer: b. Age plays a big role in what stage an individual is going through over the course of their development. Certain ages are associated with certain developmental stages. 2. According to Sigmund Freud, when is personality developed? a. It is innate in the child from birth b. It is developed in early childhood c. It develops through adolescence d. It develops through life Answer: b. According to Freud, personality develops in early childhood and is based on sexual gratification. 3. In what stage of Erickson’s stages is the conflict based on trust versus mistrust? a. Infancy b. Toddler c. Preschool d. School age Answer: a. In infancy, the child is wholly dependent on their caregiver. The task is to master issues of trust versus mistrust.

4. In what stage of Erickson’s stages is intimacy a great concern? a. Toddler b. School age c. Adolescence d. Young adult Answer: d. In young adulthood, the individual who has developed a good sense of self will want to share their lives with others and will want to master industry. 5. During which of Piaget’s stages do children have thought processes more closely associated with adult thinking? a. Sensorimotor b. Preoperational c. Formal operational d. Concrete operational Answer: c. The formal operational stage involves ages 12 years and older, which involves the ability to think more like an adult. 6. Which of Piaget’s stages do children have learning brought about by using the mouth to explore things? a. Sensorimotor b. Preoperational c. Formal operational d. Concrete operational Answer: a. Infants largely explore with their mouths and with touching. This is the sensorimotor stage of Piaget s cognitive development.

7. Which of the infant senses is least well developed? a. Hearing b. Vision c. Taste d. Smell Answer: b. Vision is the least well-developed of the infant senses. They can prefer certain faces but have difficulty distinguishing between different faces unless they are close to that face. 8. During which time of a person’s life do blooming and pruning of neural connections take place? a. Blooming occurs in early childhood and pruning happens in adolescence. b. Blooming happens through childhood and pruning happens in the young adult. c. Blooming happens prenatally and pruning happens in early childhood. d. Blooming and pruning both happen during childhood and adolescence at the same time. Answer: a. There are periods of blooming in early childhood and pruning that happens throughout childhood and adolescence. 9. When does adolescence start? a. At age 10 b. At age 13 c. At puberty d. At age 14 Answer: c. Adolescence is considered to start at puberty, which is a different time in boys and girls.

10. When is a person at peak physical fitness potential? a. Teens b. Twenties c. Thirties d. Forties Answer: b. The peak time of physical fitness potential is during a person s twenties. This is when pro-athletes have the best physical abilities.

CHAPTER FIVE: CONSCIOUSNESS The focus of this chapter is consciousness, which is the awareness of one s internal and external environment. There are different states of consciousness experienced every day, the most common of which is the sleep state. There are different stages of sleep that can be identified and a range of sleep-related disorders that can affect a person. Altered states of consciousness are covered in this chapter, including ways of inducing an altered state, such as meditation and hypnosis.

STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS Consciousness is the awareness of external and internal environmental stimuli. Internal stimuli include hunger, thirst, pain, emotions, and sleepiness, while external stimuli are the things we sense in the outside world through the senses. There is actually a gradation of consciousness from deep sleep to full awareness. Things like intoxication, daydreaming, hypnotic states, and meditation are all examples of altered consciousness. Even with wakefulness, things are screened out of our awareness so we don t notice everything. The human body has several biological rhythms, some of which have to do with consciousness. Body temperature follows a circadian rhythm, which is 24 hours in length. The menstrual cycle follows a typical lunar rhythm, which is 28 days. Sleepiness is linked to lower body temperatures. There are circadian rhythm patterns to the blood sugar, blood pressure, and heart rate. The hypothalamus sets these circadian patterns. In the hypothalamus, there is a center called the suprachiasmatic nucleus that is linked to the presence of light seen by retinal cells. This allows the brain to regulate the circadian rhythm according to the amount of light that is seen. Also linked to light is the pineal gland which makes melatonin during the dark hours so as to help a person sleep at night and stay awake during the day.

Individuals have a certain chronotype, which determines whether or not the person is a morning person or a night person. In some cases, the circadian rhythm gets disrupted, such as when experiencing jet lag after crossing several time zones. Individuals who do rotating shift work also have disruptions in their circadian rhythm and sleep-wake cycle. These individuals are at risk for anxiety and depression. The person who does not get enough sleep will exhibit a sleep debt, which can be chronic. Individuals with a sleep debt will have decreased alertness and lower mental efficiency. The fact that modern man has a great deal of exposure to artificial light sources has decreased the amount of sleep a person gets. If one sleeps less than 7 hours of sleep a night, there will be an accrual of sleep debt. People who can nap easily probably have a sleep debt. Newborns need the most amount of sleep at about 14 to 17 hours a day. This declines over time so that individuals who are teens between 14 and 17 years require between 8 and 10 hours of sleep per night. By aged sixty-five or older, only about 7 to 8 hours of sleep per night is the average. No one should get less than 5 hours of sleep per night. Lack of sleep also leads to symptoms of depression. It can happen with acute sleep deprivation or a more prolonged sleep debt. Lack of sleep is linked to obesity, increased stress hormones, high blood pressure, and a worsened immune system. These are people who can easily fall asleep behind the wheel because they are not moving much while driving.

HISTORY OF CONSCIOUSNESS The first records on consciousness come from the ancient Incas and Mayan people. They believed there were multiple levels of consciousness. They believed also that consciousness was the basic form of existence. The Incas believed that consciousness also meant having concern for others. There were early Western researchers on consciousness. John Locke believed that consciousness was linked to personal identity and that it can survive after the physical body died. Rene Descartes wondered why consciousness was linked to the physical

body when it was itself not physical. He said there was a dualism between the realm of thought and the realm of the body and believed that the brain played a role. Sigmund Freud addressed consciousness. He said there were three levels of awareness. These are the conscious, the preconscious, and the unconscious. They relate to his ideas of the id, the ego, and the superego. The conscious is the alert state, with awareness of the internal and external environment. The preconscious are where memories are stored and retrieved. The unconscious are things outside the awareness that cannot be retrieved or are felt to be unacceptable. They still have the capacity to influence behavior. Modern theorists have studied consciousness. There is a theory that consciousness is related to a person s developmental level. Social psychologists see consciousness as related to cultural influences with language playing a big role in the experience of reality. Neurobiologists see consciousness as purely a function of the biology of the brain.

SLEEP AND STAGES OF SLEEP People spend a third of their lives just sleeping. Sleep varies greatly in the animal kingdom, with little sleep gotten by amphibians and dolphins and certain death to rats who die from sleep deprivation. Sleep involves decreased physical activity and reduced awareness. Sleep rebound happens when people fall asleep faster after a period of deprivation. There are multiple brain areas that work together to facilitate and regulate sleep. These include the pons, the hypothalamus, and the thalamus. The thalamus and the hypothalamus together help control slow-wave sleep, while the pons participates in REM or rapid eye movement sleep. There are hormones associated with sleep. These include melatonin, growth hormone, luteinizing hormone (LH), and follicle stimulating hormone (FSH). It is during sleep that FSH and LH are secreted so sleep seems to be important in the generation of normal sexual function. Growth hormone is released by the pituitary gland in response to sleep. 82

No one knows exactly why people sleep but there are theories. It is probably partly related to evolutionary selection. Sleep might be important in reducing energy needs by the body. It may have also once been adaptive to the presence of predators that usually come out at night. Sleep lowers stress levels, helps to maintain weight, improves motor coordination, enhances mood, and improves memory and cognition. Memories are formed during sleep, particularly slow-wave sleep. Creativity increases with sufficient sleep. There are several stages of sleep. These can be demonstrated showing different brain wave patterns. The two main divisions of sleep are REM sleep and non-REM sleep. REM sleep is seen with eye fluttering and is usually when dreaming occurs. Non-REM sleep has four stages. Stage 1 sleep is the transition between sleep and wakefulness. There are alpha and theta waves during this phase. The person is very relaxed and easily awakened. Stage 2 sleep is deeper and is associated with sleep spindles that are crucial for learning and memory. K-complexes are seen in stage-2 sleep, which can be triggered by the external environment. Stages 3 and 4 of sleep are related and are together referred to as slow-wave sleep or delta sleep because of the presence of delta brain waves. The heart rate and respiratory rate will diminish significantly and it is most difficult to awaken a person from this stage of sleep. It takes the presence of delta waves in these stages to feel the most rested sleep. REM sleep reveals electroencephalograhic (EEG) waves that are most similar to the waking state. This is when dreaming most occurs. There is paralysis of the muscles, except for those that are necessary for respirations and circulation. There is such a thing as REM rebound, in which there is more REM sleep after a period of lost REM sleep. REM sleep is related to emotional regulation and the processing of certain emotions. There are no negative impacts from a lack of REM sleep and its suppression may help depression. Sigmund Freud was interested in dream interpretation; he felt that dreams represented a way to have access to the unconscious state. There was manifest content, which is the

actual storyline of the dream, while latent content is the hidden meaning of the dream, which is usually sexual according to Freud. Carl Jung also believed that dreams tap into the unconscious. It was felt that certain themes are the same across all cultures. Dreams are thought to be a way to construct a virtual reality that can be used to manage issues in the wakefulness period. Lucid dreaming happens when there is partial wakefulness so that the person has some control over the outcome of the dream.

SLEEP DISORDERS There are several different types of sleep disorders. In general, sleep disorders are very common, affecting up to half the population at any given point in time. Insomnia is the most common sleep disorder and represents the inability to fall asleep or the inability to stay asleep during the night. The criterion for the disorder is having problems at least three nights per week for at least one month s time. There is associated anxiety around falling asleep, which further exacerbates the sleep problem. The patient with chronic anxiety often has depressive symptoms. Insomnia can be due to poor sleep habits and may be related to exercise, mental health issues, drug use, and age. Interventions that can help insomnia include increased physical activity during the day, OTC or prescription sleeping medications, limitation of caffeine, and improved sleep habits. Those with severe insomnia should see a doctor for management. Cognitive behavioral therapy can help to some degree. There are some types of parasomnias, which are disruptive sleep experiences that can happen in REM sleep or non-REM sleep. Examples of parasomnias include restless leg syndrome, sleepwalking, and night terrors. Sleep walking is called somnambulism. The sleepwalker will participate in complex behaviors while actually asleep. It happens in slow-wave sleep most often but can happen in any stage of sleep. It is largely treated with medications like benzodiazepines and antidepressants but the value of these is questionable. REM sleep behavior disorder involves a lack of muscle paralysis during REM sleep. In a sense, the person acts out their dreams, which can be dangerous to the person or their

sleeping partner. While the most effective treatment is clonazepam, it often predates the onset of Parkinson s disease. Melatonin and keeping the person safe while sleeping are other adjunctive treatments. Another parasomnia is restless leg syndrome. The patient will have unusual or uncomfortable feelings in their legs while drowsy or trying to sleep. The person gets relief from moving the legs, which feel restless. This leads to difficulty getting to sleep. It is commonly seen in chronic kidney disease or in those who have diabetes. Night terrors involve a feeling of panic and fear, in which the patient appears to be awake but later will not recall the event. It is much more common in young children, who are inconsolable but will eventually fall asleep. Most children will outgrow the problem without sequelae. Sleep apnea often affects older individuals but can affect children. There are two types. One is obstructive sleep apnea, in which the patient frequently snores but airflow stops, even with efforts at trying to breathe, because of upper airway obstruction. The second is central sleep apnea, where efforts to breathe during sleep are not made. Both types lead to disrupted sleep and daytime fatigue and lack of concentration. A big risk for this is cardiovascular disease. The individual is often obese but it doesn t necessarily have to be the case. The primary treatment for sleep apnea is CPAP, which stands for continuous positive airway pressure. It is a sleeping mask that keeps the airway open during sleep. Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDs) is a sleep disorder in which a young infant stops breathing during sleep, resulting in death. It is more often seen in prematurity, high body temperatures, and smoking in the home. Infants who sleep on their back have a decreased risk of this, while prone infants have an increased risk. Narcolepsy involves the need to sleep at inappropriate times. It can be associated with cataplexy, which is a sudden loss of muscle tone while awake. Some individuals will have very vivid hallucinations during the attack, making a narcoleptic episode similar to REM sleep. The episodes are triggered by stress or high arousal situations. It is potentially dangerous if it happens while driving or using heavy equipment. It is treated

with amphetamines to keep the person awake. The brain problem leading to narcolepsy is a low level of the hypocretin molecule in the brain.

ALTERED STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS An altered state of consciousness is any state that is different from being completely awake. It can be caused by psychological, physiological, or pharmacological interventions and can be anything that deviates from normal wakefulness. Altered states like this have been sought after for millennia, when people used mind-altering plants in religious or spiritual circumstances. There are five suggested categories of altered states of consciousness. These include the following: 1. Spontaneous—this is what happens with near-death experiences and daydreaming 2. Physiological—this can happen during sex or when fasting 3. Psychological—this can be triggered by meditation, hypnosis, and certain music 4. Pathological—this can be seen with brain damage and epilepsy 5. Pharmacological—this is caused by the use of psychoactive drugs and substances There are many psychoactive drugs, such as MDMA, which is ecstasy, opioids, alcohol, cocaine, LSD, and cannabis or marijuana. These can all affect one s attitude, level of consciousness, behavior, and awareness. Some will use these drugs to counteract anxiety. Many of these will be addictive as people seek to frequently alter their awareness. The non-pharmacological things that will affect consciousness include certain spiritual experiences, meditation, hypnosis, recreational activities, and the development of insight and sensitivity training. Any type of emotional state can lead to an altered state of consciousness. Even traumatic experiences can cause an altered state with decreased awareness of the environment. Sleep deprivation, fasting, and psychoses have the ability to alter one s state of consciousness.

MEDITATION AND HYPNOSIS Meditation is a voluntary process where an individual uses a specific technique to promote relaxation, clarity, improved attention, and increased internal awareness. It is utilized in some spiritual circles and for secular reasons. People who participate in Buddhism and Hinduism often practice meditation. Traditional meditation involves focusing on things like a mantra or one s breathing. Meditation can involve sitting, kneeling, or lying down. There are certain practices of meditation that sit in the lotus or half-lotus position. Meditation can also be done while walking or doing simple but mindful tasks. In some practices, prayer beads or a specific mantra are utilized. There are many different clinical and secular applications for meditation. It is used for mindfulness-based reduction of stress and in some forms of cognitive therapy. It is used in psychiatric circles for stress reduction and relief of pain, depression, or anxiety. It is used in medical circles to help people with heart disease. Less likely and less well studied are uses for meditation for insomnia, cognitive decline, PTSD, and irritable bowel disease. Meditation is related to the practice of biofeedback.

HYPNOSIS Hypnosis involves increased suggestibility and the placement of a person into a state of focused attention. A hypnotist is often used to make suggestions of the patient in order to make long-lasting changes in the person s thinking and behavior. It is possible to learn self-hypnosis, in which the person makes their own suggestions. Hypnosis is strongly related to dissociation. Hypnosis is done using hypnotic induction, which is essentially contributing or initiating the hypnotic trance state. Often there is fixation of the eyes on a particular object, with the subject focused on the object. The pupils will dilate and often the eyelids will close involuntarily when the patient is hypnotized. There is an increased susceptibility to any suggestion that is made of the subject.

Some believe that the act of hypnosis involves the act of understanding the subconscious. This is why Freud was so interested in hypnosis. There are certain individuals that are more susceptible or suggestible to hypnosis. The person who has dissociative identity disorder is the most susceptible to hypnosis, followed by people with PTSD. This is because people with these disorders have a history of childhood trauma and have learned to dissociate, which is a necessary part of hypnosis.

KEY TAKEAWAYS •

Full consciousness is the awareness of one’s internal and external stimuli.

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Sleep is represented as an altered state of consciousness.

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There are many different stages of sleep, which make up REM sleep and nonREM sleep.

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Sleep disorders involve things like insomnia and several different parasomnias.

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Altered states of consciousness can be from substances, physiological states, or pathological conditions.

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Meditation is an altered state of consciousness used in religious and secular circumstances.

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Hypnosis can be used to create an altered state and can be used to treat different mental and physical disorders.

QUIZ 1. How long is a circadian rhythm pattern? a. 12 hours b. 24 hours c. 8 days d. 28 days Answer: b. The circadian rhythm lasts about 24 hours. Things like cortisol levels, temperature, and sleep follow a circadian rhythm pattern. 2. What part of the brain is linked most to the circadian rhythm of the body? a. Hypothalamus b. Thalamus c. Amygdala d. Hippocampus Answer: a. There is a nucleus inside the hypothalamus that connects to the retina so that the amount of light the brain is exposed to will help determine the circadian rhythm. 3. What part of the brain is least linked to the regulation of sleep? a. Pons b. Hippocampus c. Thalamus d. Hypothalamus Answer: b. Each of these areas play some role in the regulation of sleep except for the hippocampus, which is unrelated to sleep.

4. What hormone is most associated with the pineal gland? a. Growth hormone b. Follicle stimulating hormone c. Luteinizing hormone d. Melatonin Answer: d. Each of these hormones plays a role in the regulation of sleep but the pineal gland itself is the gland that makes melatonin in response to low light conditions. 5. The presence of which aspect of sleep most indicates a feeling of restfulness? a. Theta waves b. Sleep spindles c. K-complexes d. Delta waves Answer: d. Delta waves in slow-wave sleep are most associated with a feeling of restfulness during sleep. 6. Which stage of sleep is most associated with muscle paralysis? a. Delta sleep b. Stage 1 sleep c. REM sleep d. Stage 2 sleep Answer: c. REM sleep is most associated with muscle paralysis, even though the brain waves are highly similar to that of the wakeful state.

7. What is somnambulism? a. Having night terrors b. Engaging in sleepwalking c. Talking in one’s sleep d. Falling asleep during the day Answer: b. Another name for somnambulism is sleepwalking, in which the person engages in complex sleep behaviors while completely asleep. 8. A person who has REM sleep behavior disorder is at risk for later developing what disease? a. Somnambulism b. Narcolepsy c. Restless leg syndrome d. Parkinson’s disease Answer: d. The patient with REM sleep behavior disorder often has a risk of later developing Parkinson s disease or another neurodegenerative disorder. 9. What is a pathological cause of an altered state of consciousness? a. Psychedelic mushrooms b. Daydreaming c. Hypnosis d. Epilepsy Answer: d. Epilepsy is a cause of an altered state of consciousness that is pathological because it is ultimately caused by a disease process.

10. What drug is least likely to cause an altered state of consciousness? a. Muscle relaxant b. Alcohol c. Opioid painkiller d. Ecstasy Answer: a. While each of these drugs is likely to cause an altered state of consciousness, muscle relaxants mostly affect the muscles but can help to relax the person. It is least likely to cause an altered state of consciousness.

CHAPTER SIX: SENSATION AND PERCEPTION This chapter discusses the principles of sensation and perception. Sensation can involve several things because there are multiple sensory organs in the body. The typical sensory functions covered in this chapter are vision, hearing, olfaction, taste, and several different tactile perceptions. Each of these depends on certain receptors that pick up details up from the environment. Perception is related to sensation. Because Gestalt psychology is based on perception, this is discussed in this chapter as well.

SENSATION AND PERCEPTION DEFINED Most of us know what a sense is and know there are several different basic senses. Sensation makes use of specialized sensory receptors that are associated with sensory neurons that are designed to respond to certain stimuli, most of which come from external sources. When a sensation becomes an action potential in a neuron, this is called transduction. There are actually more than five basic senses. Besides hearing, vision, smell, touch, and taste, there are several other sensations, such as the vestibular sense, which is the sense of balance, proprioception, which is the sensation of body position, kinesthesia, which is the sensation of movement, nociception, which is the sensation of pain, and thermoception, which is the sensation of temperature. There will be an absolute threshold, which is the least amount of stimulus energy necessary in order to detect the sensation at least half the time. It can be a certain light or sound that is first detected by the eyes or ears. In the healthy person, these two senses can be extremely sensitive and able to detect very slight amounts of dim light or soft sound. Subliminal messages are things sensed by the body below the threshold of awareness but enough to send signals to the brain. It is still received but is not consciously detected. Outside of a laboratory setting, subliminal sensations probably do not affect

behavior very much, even though they have been used in things like self-help tapes and advertising. The concept of difference threshold or the just noticeable difference” is the ability to detect changes in the intensity of the stimulus. In some ways, it depends on the environment. A change in a sound intensity would be less noticeable in a noisy environment than it would be in a quiet environment. The same is true of changes in light intensity. Perception is related to sensation but is not the same thing. Perception refers to how sensory information is picked up by the person, organized, interpreted in the brain, and experienced consciously. Bottom-up processing means that perception is created out of sensory input, while top-down processing is related to the fact that a person s previous experience, knowledge, and thoughts will influence that individual s perception. Perception is a psychological term, while sensation is a physiological term. Not all sensations are perceived. This is extremely necessary because it would be impossible and confusing to perceive consciously all of the sensations one experiences. Sensory adaptation is the ability to tune out certain things that are no longer necessary to pay attention to. Attention is important to perception. Attention is the ability to focus on something in order for it to be perceived. We do not pay attention to everything. Sometimes, one will pay such close attention to something in the environment that other things are completely not noticed. This is referred to as inattentional blindness. There have been several experiments using this concept that indicate even obvious things in the environment are missed because of inattention to it. Motivation will affect perception as well. If you are motivated to hear or see something, you can sometimes think you perceived it when you did not. This ability to pick up a stimulus when it is surrounded by other similar stimuli is called signal detection theory. It explains how air traffic controllers are able to track certain airplanes on a screen when there are other blips on the screen present. Past experiences, belief systems, expectations, values, and prejudices will all affect a person s perception. Cultural experiences will also affect perception. In some cases, 95

there are critical periods in an infant s life that are necessary in order to have the later ability to perceive something.

WAVES Before you learn about vision and hearing, you need to understand something about waves. Both of these senses make use of different types of waves. Waves are depicted in Figure 13:

Figure 13.

The amplitude of the wave is the distance between the center point of the wave and the top of the wave. The wavelength is the distance from one wave peak to the next. The crest of the wave is the top of the wave, while the trough of the wave is the bottom of the wave. The frequency of the wave is measured in hertz and is the number of waves passing through a medium per a given time period. Hertz are usually measured in cycles per second. There is a spectrum of waves called the electromagnetic spectrum. Visible waves are just a part of this spectrum and represents those electromagnetic waves that can actually be seen by the human eye. Figure 14 shows the electromagnetic spectrum and where visible light falls:

Figure 14.

You should know that the visible spectrum refers specifically to humans. Bees, for example, can detect ultraviolet waves, while certain snakes have the ability to detect waves in the infrared spectrum. The different wavelengths in the visual electromagnetic spectrum are associated with different colors of light. Red has the longest wavelength, while purple has the shortest wavelength. They extend from one color to the next in a rainbow pattern. The intensity of light is determined by the amplitude of the wave. Sound waves are basically similar to light waves. They have a much longer wavelength with high-frequency sounds being high pitched, while low-frequency sounds are low pitched. There is a wide range of what can be perceived by the human ear, between 20 and 20,000 Hertz. The most sensitive frequencies are in the middle of the range of possible sound waves. Different animal species are sensitive to different ranges of sound waves. The amplitude of a sound wave determines its loudness. Loudness is measured in decibels, with most conversation about sixty decibels. Very loud sounds heard for an extended period of time are believed to be harmful to the ears and can result in permanent damage to the hearing.

VISION The visual system is largely represented by the eyes. Light waves enter the eye across the clear cornea and through the pupil, which is the opening to the eye itself. The cornea is the protective covering over the eye. The pupils will constrict or open in order to let more or less light into the eye. The iris is the colored part of the eye. There are muscles that increase or decrease the size of the pupil. Figure 15 shows the main structures of the human eye:

Figure 15.

Behind the pupil and iris is the lens. The lens is curved and is responsible for the focusing of objects. There are muscles that slightly change the shape of the lens so that a person can focus on near or far objects. Light from images is projected on the retina, which is the inner lining of the back of the eye. The retina is highly light sensitive and has photoreceptor cells. The cones are photoreceptors that work the best in bright lighting. They help to see details and color. The rods are not very color sensitive and are better able to function in low light settings. This is why color vision is so poor at night.

Rods and cones are connected to retinal neurons that together form the optic nerve, which sends sight information to the brain for processing. The fovea is the blind spot that is where the optic nerve exits the eye. There are no rods or cones there. Inside the brain, the optic nerves from each eye cross over at the optic chiasm. Much of the visual signal from the left eye goes to the right visual cortex in the occipital lobe, while the reverse is true of the information from the right eye. Vision is not black and white; it is also not two-dimensional. There are three types of cones that get activated to see specific colors. The three colors perceived are green, red, and blue. Cones that are activated by one color get inhibited by its opposite color. This explains why there is an afterimage after staring at a bright light of a certain object. We see things in our environment in three-dimensions because of depth perception. There are different cues used to perceive three dimensions. Part of this comes from the fact that we have two eyes that together provide binocular vision. There are also monocular cues to depth perception, which are possible with just one eye. Things like linear perspective, in which parallel lines converge in the distance, help us see depth, even in a two-dimensional photo.

HEARING Hearing involves the perception of pressure waves by the ears. There are several sections to the anatomy of the ear. The outer ear consists of the pinna or auricle, which is the part that can be seen, the auditory canal, and the tympanic membrane, or ear drum. The anatomy of the ear is described in Figure 16:

Figure 16.

The middle ear involves the middle ear cavity, which contains the ossicles, which are referred to as the malleus, the incus, and the stapes. These move to focus the sound wave onto the inner ear. There are two parts to the inner ear. These are the semicircular canals and the cochlea. The semicircular canals are involved in balance and the cochlea contains hair cells, which are the sensory receptor cells of the ear. Sound comes in waves. They first travel through the auditory canal, reaching the tympanic membrane. The membrane vibrates, with the sound waves causing movement of the ossicles. The stapes is the closest to the inner ear. It pushes on a membrane called the oval window, which moves fluid in the cochlea, which triggers activity in the hair cells. The hair cells are attached to the basilar membrane and sound is transmitted into the brain. The different sound frequencies heard by the human ear are referred to as the pitch of the sound. It is not completely clear how pitch is detected. Different hair cells may fire uniquely depending on the pitch of the sound. Alternatively, different parts of the basilar membrane might be sensitive to different frequencies of sound. It is likely that both ideas are in play with regard to sound detection. 100

Sounds can easily be localized in space. This is because there are binaural and monaural cues to sound localization. Binaural cues require two ears. Monaural cues refer to the way the auricle can detect sounds that are coming from above, below, in front or behind the person. Binaural cues depend on differences in the way sounds are detected by the two tympanic membranes. Sounds from each ear are heard at slightly different times and at different intensities so as to be able to localize sound. Hearing loss or deafness can be congenital, in which the person has it from birth, or conductive, which usually happens because of noise exposure, age, or exposure to certain toxins or diseases, such as measles or mumps. Hearing aids can help this. With sensorineural hearing loss, the problem is within the signaling of nerve cells from the inner ear to the brain. The only treatment for this is cochlear implants, which stimulate the auditory nerve.

OTHER SENSES There are two chemical senses. These are taste or gustation and smell or olfaction. These senses work together in order to describe the properties of the food a person eats. There are probably six different basic tastes. These include the categories of salty, sour, bitter, and sweet, as well as the taste called umami, which detects the amount of monosodium glutamate in food. The taste sensation of fatty is also suggested as a probable separate taste category. The taste of something is detected by taste buds, which stick out from the surface of the tongue. These taste buds detect chemical changes in the saliva and transport the information to the brain through different cranial nerves. The parts of the brain associated with taste are the thalamus, the limbic system, and the medulla. There is also a gustatory cortex found between the temporal and frontal lobe. Figure 17 shows the anatomy of these taste buds:

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Figure 17.

The sense of smell is also chemical in nature. There are numerous olfactory receptor cells on top of the nasal cavity that pick up chemicals from the air that are dissolved in the nasal mucous membrane. The signal gets transmitted directly to the olfactory bulb in the frontal lobe. This information goes partially to the limbic system and onto the primary olfactory cortex, which is located near the gustatory cortex. Figure 18 shows the olfactory system in the nasal cavity:

Figure 18.

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Olfaction is different among the different species. Dogs especially have a strong sense of smell compared to humans. Pheromones are chemical messengers that are sent from one gender in a species to another as part of sexual attraction. There are several sensations associated with the skin, which contains a number of different receptors that detect different sensations. Meissner s corpuscles are those that respond to low-frequency vibrations and pressure. Pacinian corpuscles detect highfrequency vibrations and brief episodes of pressure. Merkel s disks detect light pressure and Ruffini corpuscles detect the sensation of stretch. Figure 19 shows the different receptors:

Figure 19.

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The two sensations that are picked up through free nerve endings are thermoception, which detects temperature, and nociception, which detects pain sensation. These sensations all go to the somatosensory cortex in the parietal lobe, which is responsible for the interpretation of these senses. Pain has both psychological and physical components. Some pain can be inflammatory, which comes from some type of tissue damage. Other pain is neuropathic, which comes directly from damage to a nerve. Because there are psychological components to pain, interventions such as relaxation techniques can be employed to treat pain. Pain medications and deep brain stimulation are also used to treat pain. Another sense is referred to as vestibular sense. This is directly picked up by the semicircular canals of the inner ear. There are hair cells in these canals that respond to head movement and to gravity. It is something people don t often think about unless they have vertigo, which is a kind of spinning dizziness that can come from problems with the inner ear. It is this same vestibular system that helps to detect things like proprioception and kinesthesia. Proprioception helps to perceive the body s position in space and kinesthesia helps to determine how the body is moving. Kinesthesia and proprioception are also responsive to the receptors in the joints, skin, muscles, and tendons that detect tension and stretch.

GESTALT PRINCIPLES OF SENSATION It was more than a hundred years ago that it was first observed that rapidly flickering images were able to be detected as movement. This led to many things, including the development of Gestalt psychology. It is based on the premise that the whole perception is more than the sum of the sensory parts that are perceived. There are relatively predictable ways that a person organizes his or her sensory information. Figure 20 shows the figure ground relationship, which is a perception puzzle used in Gestalt psychology:

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Figure 20.

Gestalt basically means pattern” and there are theories such as the organization of things close together being seen together as a pattern in what s called proximity. The definition of proximity is that things clustered together are perceived to be together. Another principle is that of similarity, which means that similar things tend also to be grouped together. Other principles of Gestalt psychology include continuity, which is the tendency to see things as continuous, and closure, which is the tendency to see things as complete rather than as parts of something.

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Key Takeaways •

The human body has the capability of many different types of senses.

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Perception involves how we are able to organize our sensations.

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Vision and hearing are wave-based sensations that rely on the interpretation of wave energy.

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Taste and olfaction are based on the detection of certain things in the environment.

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There are several skin receptors and free nerve endings that sense different things related to touch.

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The inner ear controls balance, proprioception, and kinesthetic sense.

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Gestalt psychology refers to predictable ways that patterns help organize perceptions.

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QUIZ 1. What is the basic definition of transduction? a. It is when a sensory receptor picks up a stimulus. b. It is when a sensed stimulus gets converted into an action potential in a neuron. c. It is when a sensation gets extinguished over time. d. It is when a nerve sends a signal to another nerve. Answer: b. Transduction is when a sensed stimulus gets converted into an action potential in a neuron. 2. What does the sensation of nociception detect? a. Pain b. Body position c. Movement d. Balance Answer: a. The sensation of nociception is the detection of pain. There are specific nociceptors that pick up painful stimuli. 3. What is not a psychological factor that affects perception? a. Motivation b. Stimulus intensity c. Attention d. Past experiences Answer: b. Perception can be based on many different psychological factors, including motivation, attention, and past experiences. Stimulus intensity is a physical factor.

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4. What is the distance of a wave from one peak to another peak called? a. Amplitude b. Frequency c. Wavelength d. Crest Answer: c. The wavelength of a wave is the distance of the wave from one peak to another peak. Waves that are of a slow wavelength are sound waves, while waves that are of a fast wavelength are visual waves. 5. What aspect of a sound wave is best determined to be measured in decibels? a. Propagation b. Amplitude c. Wavelength d. Frequency Answer: b. The amplitude of the sound wave can be determined in decibels. It is a measurement of the loudness of a given sound. 6. What structure of the eye is the colored part? a. Cornea b. Retina c. Lens d. Iris Answer: d. The iris of the eye is considered the colored part of the eye. You will see more or less of the iris as the pupil constricts or dilates.

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7. When it comes to ear anatomy, what is considered to be the auricle? a. One of the bones behind the tympanic membrane b. The tube through which sound waves enter the ear. c. The part of the inner ear that controls balance. d. The part of the ear that can be seen from the outside. Answer: d. The auricle is the outer cartilaginous part of the ear, which is the part of the ear that can be seen on the outside. 8. What part of the inner ear is most responsible for the perception of sound? a. Cochlea b. Semicircular canals c. Stapes d. Tympanic membrane Answer: a. The cochlea is shaped like a snail. It is the part of the inner ear that contains the hair cells that pick up the sound waves in order to detect sound. 9. Which sense is referred to as a chemically-based sense? a. Vision b. Nociception c. Olfaction d. Kinesthetic sense Answer: c. Both olfaction and taste are considered chemically-based senses because chemicals change the receptor cells in order to detect these senses by the brain.

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10. Which skin sensation is picked up through free nerve endings rather than through a receptor? a. Pressure b. Vibration c. Light touch d. Pain Answer: d. Each of these has special receptors that do the detecting of the specific sense. The only exceptions are the sensations of pain and temperature.

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CHAPTER SEVEN: LEARNING THEORY The topic of this chapter is learning theories. Learning involves the acquisition of new information but it can also involve acquiring behaviors, values, preferences, or skills. There is learning throughout life and different ways in which learning can happen. Some of the most historically significant learning strategies are classical conditioning and operant conditioning, although there are other ways of learning new things, such as through operational learning or modeling, which is covered in this chapter.

LEARNING DEFINED All living things and some computerized machines have the ability to learn. Some learning will be immediate, while others require skill to accumulate the knowledge over a period of time and through repeated experiences. The human learning experience continues throughout life because of continual interactions with others and with the environment. Learning can be conscious or subconscious. There is such a thing as learned helplessness” which involves deciding that an aversive event is unavoidable. There are several different types of learning. With non-associative learning, the change is permanent because of repeated response to a single stimulus. The two types of this are habituation and sensitization. With habituation, the probable response decreases as the stimulus repeats itself. This is different from extinction of a response. If something is not associated with a reward, the response will diminish. Sensitization involves an increase in a response after repeated exposure to a stimulus. The need to escape or withdraw from a harmful stimulus increases after repeated exposure to a harmful stimulus. The response becomes amplified the more an aversive stimulus is applied. This can be adaptive or maladaptive, depending on the circumstances. Active learning involves taking control of your learning experience. With this type of learning, you need to understand what you know and what you do not know so you can master a given subject. This is an efficient learning process because there is an incentive 111

to learn something. It is the basis of student-centered learning rather than teachercentered learning, which is passive. Associative learning involves being able to identify an association between two different events or stimuli. This is what s seen in both operant conditioning and classical conditioning, which are discussed in a few minutes. Other types of associative learning include observational learning or modeling, which involves a social model rather than reinforcement, and imprinting, which happens with young animals that form a specific bond with something shortly after birth. Play is another form of learning. It describes particular behaviors that do not necessarily have a specific end but there is still improvement in performance. Mammals and birds will both engage in play. Play consumes energy and exposes vulnerability in certain animal species but has benefits that indicate it is an important part of learning. There are five types of play activities. These include sensorimotor play, associated with repetition, role playing, rule-based play, construction play, which involves building and experimentation, and physical play. Enculturation is a form of learning that is involved with learning certain behaviors and values that are associated with their particular culture. If it happens, language skills, value systems, and certain rituals of the culture are learned. It is somewhat different from the process of acculturation, which is the same thing but involves a new culture that is different from the one a person grew up in. Episodic learning involves learning that happens because of an event. It is recorded in a person s episodic memory, which is a snapshot of the event. This is different from semantic memory, which puts a given experience into the context of other things they know about the episode. Electronic learning is related to what s called augmented learning. Electronic learning or e-learning is computer-enhanced. Interaction with the computer is referred to as augmented learning. It is particularly helpful because it can be tailored to the environment. It can be a multimedia event and has been found to be particularly effective. The learner can communicate with the content, with the instructor, and with other learners.

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Rote learning is memorizing things. It involves a great deal of repetition in which certain things are learned but not their meaning. There are many things that use rote learning, such as languages, mathematics, and music. It takes a great deal of practice to retain information this way. Meaningful learning involves taking facts and understanding how they relate to other pieces of information a person already knows. It is essentially the opposite of rote learning because, after meaningful learning, the meaning of the facts is both understood and comprehensive. Informal learning is learning not gained in a typical learning situation but is gained through day to day activities. Learning happens all the time and, because everyday things provide learning experiences, they are things a person can learn from without necessarily putting in much effort. Formal learning involves the school system and a teacher-student interaction. It is not necessarily strict and obviously formal but is organized and directed with goals and objectives, such as those you would see in a classroom. Nonformal learning is what you d gain from being involved in a social group that involved people with similar interests. Clubs, workshops, and youth organizations involve informal learning strategies. Tangential learning involves self-education and the learning of a topic the person enjoys already. It comes from enjoying an activity that spurs on the desire to learn something new that is an aspect of that activity. It is especially a good form of learning for motivated independent learners. Incidental learning is not planned but happens as a side effect of another learning activity. It can happen when a teacher waits for the student to initiate dialogue about a topic or expresses interest in something they are incidentally exposed to. There are three domains of learning, according to the work of Benjamin Bloom. These are not considered mutually exclusive because one can learn something involving more than one domain. The three areas of learning are:

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Cognitive—this is typical learning, such as problem-solving, analysis, discussion, recall, and calculations.

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Psychomotor—this involves learning psychomotor skills, such as riding a bike and driving a car. It involves some form of physical activity.

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Affective—this involves learning to appreciate, dislike, or fear something that has developed because of a learning process.

Learning can be transferred from one situation to another situation, if the cues are similar. Transfer can be near transfer, which involves things in a similar context, and far transfer, which involves things in a different context. Positive transfer happens when learning supports the problem-solving process, while negative transfer happens when learning inhibits the solving of a new problem. There are multiple factors that affect the learning process. These include the following: •

Hereditary factors—this cannot be changed and is inherent in the learner, who learns in different ways and at different rates. It is closely related to the intelligence of the learner.

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Status of students—this involves the student’s physical and home situation. Students need sleep, rest, nutrition, and proper home conditions in order to learn effectively.

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Physical environment—this is the quality and design of the learning environment itself. It affects how teachers teach as well as how students learn.

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Goals—each student has his or her own personal goals and expectations. There are immediate goals and distant goals that can affect what is learned and at what rate it is learned.

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Motivation—motivated learners are stimulated to learn with interest. These are energized learners that are self-stimulated.

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Interest—this is what propels a person to learn more. There are positive feelings about the subject that promotes further learning.

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Attention—this involves remaining focused on the topic so as to gather more information as to what can be learned.

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Practice—this is best with those types of learning that involve several steps or complex things that need to be incorporated into the person’s ongoing and permanent behaviors.

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Fatigue—this can be of several types and will impede learning unless teaching methods are altered to counteract this.

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Aptitude and attitude—aptitude is natural ability in the student and attitude is the inclination the person has in order to learn the topics that need to be learned.

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Emotions—this involves being praised for subjects learned or for good results, which will encourage further learning.

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Speed, retention, and accuracy—these involve how quickly and accurately the information is obtained and how much of it is retained by the student.

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Testing—this is important in determining what the student knows and identifies differences in what the different students have retained.

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Guidance—this is the necessity of being guided by another person in the learning process. Younger learners often need more guidance.

Unlearned behaviors are called reflexes, which exist in many different species of animals and explain why birds travel south for the winter and how infants know how to breastfeed. Most reflexes are simple reactions and behaviors. Instincts are also unlearned and involve more complex behaviors, such as sexual activity and bird migration. These are generally adaptive to the environment. Learning is gathered from different experiences. It is usually somewhat permanent and sometimes involves practice and training. As mentioned, some learning is associative, which means that disparate things become linked to one another because of the learning process.

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CLASSICAL CONDITIONING Ivan Pavlov can be considered the father of classical conditioning, which involves the association of different stimuli and the ability to anticipate certain events. Much of Pavlov s research was done on dogs. He was actually a physiologist and not a psychologist. Salivation in dogs, he found, was increased with the taste of food, the sight of food, the sight of the food dish, and the sound of the approaching lab personnel. He felt that this represented a learning experience. Pavlov began to pair salivation with completely unrelated things, such as a light or a bell. There were, Pavlov felt, unconditioned responses, which were basically reflexes, and conditioned responses, which are learned behaviors. The unconditioned response is to an unconditioned stimulus, such as food. The conditioned response is to a conditioned stimulus, which is the one unrelated to food. The conditioned stimulus is also referred to as the neutral stimulus. This pairing of some type of neutral stimulus with a conditioned response is referred to as second-order conditioning or higher-order conditioning. It must be relatively simple when it comes to animal behavior. Multiple stimuli presented in a certain order are less likely to elicit a conditioned response in most animals. Classical conditioning does not just apply to animals but can be seen in humans. It also does not have to involve feeding but can involve things like invisible dog fencing. Classical conditioning involves acquisition, which is the learning process that pairs the conditioned stimulus with the conditioned response. It can take time but, with certain very aversive stimuli, the acquisition phase can be very short—even a single paired event. The process of extinction is the breaking of the conditioned response from the conditioned stimulus. It can be done by repeatedly not giving the unconditioned stimulus (such as food) after presenting the conditioned stimulus (the bell). The response would get weaker and weaker until it eventually disappears altogether. There can, however, be spontaneous recovery of the response after a period of rest or after extinction has occurred.

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There are two other concepts you need to learn about. The first is stimulus discrimination, which involves the ability to distinguish between similar but distinct stimuli, responding differently to each type of stimulus. Stimulus generalization is the opposite of this. It involves having a conditioned response to things that are similar to the original conditioned stimulus. Habituation happens when the stimulus is repeated regularly so as to gradually lead to a decreased response. It is involved with becoming so accustomed to a stimulus that it is ignored and no longer responded to. John B Watson founded the discipline of behaviorism in the early 20th century. It is not based on the subconscious but is based on stimulus and response reactions. According to Watson, internal processes cannot be seen so the focus should be on behaviors that are observable. He worked with a baby in order to demonstrate the conditioning of fears. The baby was ultimately conditioned to fear neutral stimuli by pairing it with something aversive. The child also experienced generalized responses to related stimuli that were not initially paired with the aversive stimulus.

OPERANT CONDITIONING Operant conditioning pairs a behavior with a certain consequence. Positive consequences increase the likelihood of the behavior, while negative consequences decrease the likelihood of the behavior. This basically means using reward and punishment in order to modify behavior. BF Skinner was the main proponent of this type of learning. It is based on the law of effect, which indicates that behaviors with rewards are repeated and behaviors with punishments are not likely to be repeated. Skinner worked mainly with rats and pigeons. Rats were taught to push on a lever, while pigeons were taught how to peck on a disk. The Skinner box contained a speaker and lights that were used to elicit a response, while there was a recorder to document the responses themselves. The terms you need to know with regard to operant conditioning include positive and negative. A positive reinforcement means adding something to increase the behavior, while a negative reinforcement is removing something to increase the behavior. The 117

same is true of a positive and negative punishment. A reinforcement is something done to increase a behavior, while a punishment is something done to decrease a behavior. Positive reinforcement is the most effective way of teaching someone or an animal a new behavior. Positive reinforcement is used all the time in both children and adults. It is the type of reinforcement one gets from getting paid after doing one s job or when rewarding a child for doing a specific behavior or task. With negative reinforcement, there is an undesirable stimulus removed to increase a behavior. This is used by automobile manufacturers that have a loud noise that is subsequently removed when the person uses their seatbelt. Punishment is not the same as negative reinforcement. Punishment will always decrease a particular behavior. Taking away a favorite toy if a child misbehaves is an example of negative punishment, while scolding a child is an example of positive punishment. The downside is that punishment will instill fear in the child that can be generalized to the person delivering the punishment. Punishment will also increase aggression and antisocial behavior in a child. Shaping is involved in operant conditioning. It involves successively rewarding behavior that increasingly approaches the target behavior. This is necessary in order to get more complex behaviors accomplished. Initially, any behavior that resembles the target behavior is rewarded but later, the reward is given specifically for the target behavior only. It is a way to teach a chain of behaviors or a complex behavior. This is also what s used for training animals but it can be used for human behavior as well. There are also primary and secondary reinforcers. Food or a direct reward similar to food is an example of a primary reinforcer that does not have to be learned. Touch, sex, food, sleep, water, and shelter are primary reinforcers because they are naturally reinforcing. Secondary reinforcers have no inherent value but are generally linked to a primary reinforcer. Money is an example of a secondary reinforcer. It must be tied to something primary in order to be effective. There are different reinforcement schedules that can be a part of operant conditioning. Continuous reinforcement is when a reward is given every time the behavior is performed. This is good for promoting new behaviors. Partial reinforcement is also

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called intermittent reinforcement. There are different reinforcement schedules involving partial reinforcement. There are fixed reinforcement schedules and variable reinforcement schedule. There will be different intervals between reinforcements. These are the different reinforcement schedules: 1. Fixed interval—there are predictable time intervals between reinforcements. It results in a moderate rate of response and pauses after the reinforcement has occurred. 2. Variable interval—there is an unpredictable time interval between reinforcements. The response rate is moderate but consistent. 3. Fixed ratio reinforcement—there is reinforcement after a predictable number of responses. The response rate is high but pauses after reinforcement. 4. Variable ratio reinforcement—this is when reinforcement is given after an unpredictable number of responses. This yields the highest response rate with a steady response. Gambling is an example of this. When it comes to the ability to extinguish the behavior, variable ratio reinforcement schedules involve behaviors that are the hardest to extinguish. On the other hand, fixed interval reinforcement is seen when a sick patient presses a pain pump to treat postoperative pain is the easiest behavior to extinguish and is the least productive of all of the schedules. Edward Tolman looked at rats and showed that they can learn even if there isn t an immediate reinforcement. What it means is that there must be some cognition or thought related to learning. Rats were placed in a maze and were either fed along the route of the maze or fed only at the end of the maze. Both groups of rats were quickly able to navigate the map, which demonstrates the ability for latent learning.

MODELING Modeling as you know is an example of observational learning. This is learning through watching others and imitating them. There are specific neurons called mirror neurons that are responsible for this. It can be a learning style for animals and humans.

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Imitation can be a positive thing or a negative thing. Children can, for example, imitate the punishment dealt out to them by their parents by hurting younger children in the same way. Observational learning is more complex than simple imitation. There is cognition involved in many cases. One can see punishment dealt to another person and will decide to change your own behavior. You can also learn a certain rule that can be applied to a variety of situations. Imitation can be with a live demonstration, through verbal instruction about a behavior, or symbolic, involving fictional characters. Modeling involves being focused on the model and need to retain the information that has been observed. Some type of motivation is necessary, which is based on what you observe the consequences have been for the model. Vicarious reinforcement involves seeing a positive effect on the model, while vicarious punishment involves seeing a negative effect on the model. There are prosocial models and antisocial models that can be imitated.

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KEY TAKEAWAYS •

Learning involves the acquisition of many things besides knowledge, such as behaviors, attitudes, and motivations.

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There are a number of different learning strategies that can be used to learn things.

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Classical conditioning involves having the conditioned stimulus given before the behavior.

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Operant conditioning involves giving the punishment or reward after the target behavior.

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Shaping of behavior can occur with regard to learning complex behaviors.

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Behavior modification involves the principles of operant conditioning.

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Modeling is observational learning that can be live, verbal, or symbolic.

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QUIZ 1. The decrease in a response because of exposure to a repeated stimulus is called what? a. Sensitization b. Habituation c. Extinction d. Active learning Answer: b. With habituation, there is a decrease in a response because of repeated exposure to a stimulus. This is seen when there is a decrease in agitation from birds exposed to a stuffed owl that is less likely seen as an actual predator bird. 2. What type of learning is involved in student-centered learning? a. Active learning b. Passive learning c. Associative learning d. Non-associative learning Answer: a. Active learning is considered to be what s involved in student-centered learning, in which students participate in the process and have an incentive to learn something. 3. What type of learning is most associated with the learning of facts but not their meaning? a. Rote learning b. Electronic learning c. Associative learning d. Integrative learning Answer: a. With rote learning, used in mathematics and language acquisition, there is the learning of facts through memorization but the meaning behind the facts is not necessarily acquired this way.

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4. What type of learning involves digging deeper into a topic that the student already enjoys but wants to learn more about? a. Incidental learning b. Dialogic learning c. Tangential learning d. Associative learning Answer: c. With tangential learning, there is an offshoot of something the person already enjoys or something that entices them to dig more deeply into related subjects regarding their interests. 5. Who or what was the subject of much of Pavlov’s work on classical conditioning? a. Dogs b. Rats c. Monkeys d. Children Answer: a. Pavlov performed many of his experiments on dogs, who were trained to salivate by associating feeding with an unrelated stimulus. 6. In Pavlov’s experience, what is not considered a conditioned stimulus? a. Light being turned on b. Food being presented c. An empty bowl d. The sound of a bell Answer: b. Each of these can be considered a conditioned stimulus because they are relatively neutral and are not causative of a natural reflex. Only the presentation or taste of food is an unconditioned stimulus.

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7. What is the main different between classical and operant conditioning? a. Classical conditioning is faster at changing behavior than operant conditioning. b. Classical conditioning involves animals, while operant conditioning involves animals or people. c. The timing of the conditioned stimulus is different between classical and operant conditioning. d. There is pairing of a stimulus and a response only with classical conditioning. Answer: c. With classical conditioning, the conditioned stimulus happens before the behavior, while with operant conditioning, the conditioned stimulus is given after the behavior. 8. Which animal did Skinner use along with a disc that could be touched in order to get a food reward? a. Rat b. Monkey c. Dog d. Pigeon Answer: d. The pigeons used a disc that they pecked in order to receive a specific food reward. 9. What is an example of a secondary rather than a primary reinforcer in operant conditioning? a. Food b. Sleep c. Money d. Shelter Answer: c. Money is a secondary reinforcer rather than a primary reinforcer because it has no inherent value except that it can be attached to a primary reinforcer to give it some value.

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10. What is considered the most effective way of shaping behavior? a. Positive reinforcement b. Negative reinforcement c. Positive punishment d. Negative punishment Answer: a. Positive reinforcement is considered the most effective way to shape behavior because it is more efficient and has fewer adverse effects.

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CHAPTER EIGHT: INTELLIGENCE AND THINKING This chapter is about intelligence, thinking, and cognition. Part of the understanding of intelligence involves the understanding of things like creativity and language. Where intelligence comes from and how it is tested for are also covered in this chapter. Everyone, regardless of their intelligence, has the ability to problem solve so this is included in the chapter.

COGNITION DEFINED The brain is always active, even in sleep to some degree. The brain is involved in cognition, which is basically thinking and thought processes. There are many aspects of cognition, including problem solving, memory, language, judgment, perception, and knowledge. Cognition does not happen randomly but is organized within the brain. Individuals are not always aware of everything that goes into what becomes a conscious thought. The field of cognitive psychology looks at how individuals think—how thinking interacts with emotions, language, problem solving, and creativity. There are differences between people as to how they problem solve and how intelligent they are. Some people are clearly more creative than others. Out of the myriad ways of thinking comes certain specific categories of thought. In the thinking process, there is more than just sensory input. Prior thoughts, memories, and emotions all influence a person s thoughts and behaviors. There are ways of organizing the information stored in the brain. The filing system of the brain is related to things called concepts. Concepts are simply categories of different types of thoughts. They are used in order to see relationships between different levels of experience. They keep the mind s contents accessible and organized. Concepts may be abstract or concrete, depending on the concept. Some are personal to the individual and because they are ways that a person organizes everything, they are pervasive in one s thinking. Concepts make use of prototypes, which are a 126

representation given concept. You can use a prototype to think of what a specific concept means to you. There are two categories of concepts. These are natural concepts and artificial concepts. Natural concepts come out of a person s specific experiences. They are constructed about your own personal observations of a subject. An artificial concept is one that is defined by certain characteristics of the items in the concept. Mathematical concepts are considered artificial concepts. A schema is a cluster of related concepts. It is basically a mental construct that further organizes the mind so that the brain can function more efficiently. It allows rapid assumptions to be made about things that are observed. There are different categories of schemata. Role schemata help to make judgments about what behavior a person will have as part of the role they are in. This type of schema can lead to stereotyping. There are event schemata or cognitive scripts that lead to certain behaviors under certain situations. Event schemata vary according to the specific culture that the individual comes from. These tend to be so automatic that they can be difficult to change. Intelligence itself is a difficult concept to define, yet for a long time, it has been thought of as a single factor or perhaps many factors unique to the individual. Raymond Cattell in the 1940s felt there were two parts to intelligence. Crystallized intelligence is acquired and involves things that are remembered, recalled, and learned over time. Fluid intelligence is the ability to problem solve and to see complex relationships between things. This is not a learned phenomenon. There are three components to intelligence according to Robert Sternberg, which is called the triarchic theory of intelligence. There is analytical intelligence, which is academic problem solving, creative intelligence, which is imagination and innovative problem solving, and practical intelligence, which is common sense and street smarts. Practical intelligence is what is least likely to be tested for on regular intelligence tests. Still other theorists have developed categories of intelligence. Howard Gardner believed there are eight different categories of intelligence. These different categories include the following: 127

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Linguistic intelligence

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Logical-mathematical intelligence

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Musical intelligence

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Body kinesthetic intelligence

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Spatial intelligence

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Interpersonal intelligence

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Intrapersonal intelligence

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Naturalistic intelligence

People will have a range of abilities so that they will be very strong in certain categories and weaker in other categories. This leads to the concept of certain cognitive styles” that help to define the person. Sometimes interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligence are together formed into emotional intelligence. This is the ability to understand emotions, display empathy, and understand social cues in ways that are socially appropriate. Some believe that emotional intelligence is a better predictor of success than traditional intelligence. Intelligence can be defined differently depending on the culture a person lives in. There are certain aspects of intelligence that are more or less revered in the various cultures. This is referred to as cultural intelligence or cultural competence. Creativity involves the ability to create or discover new solutions, possibilities, and ideas. Creativity doesn t have as much to do with the arts as it does with all disciplines. Even in the scientific world, one needs creativity in order to find solutions to things regardless of the person s field of thinking. Creativity depends on divergent thinking or the ability to think outside the box. This is different from convergent thinking, which involves the ability to provide the well-established answer to a given problem. i

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LANGUAGE Language is more than words. It also involves the specific rules of organization of the words so that information is passed from one person to another. Communication is much more than language. It involves certain movements, postures, and vocalizations used by different species in order to develop social relationships. There are two major components of language. These are a lexicon or the vocabulary and grammar, which are the rules used to convey the meaning of the lexicon. Words are made up of phonemes, which are basic units of sound. Each language has its own phonemes, which are combined to make morphemes. A morpheme is the smallest parts of a word that actually mean something. Semantics is the way meaning is derived from words and morphemes, while syntax refers to the organization of words into sentences. While language is difficult when trying to learn a second language as adults, it is actually learned very quickly by young children. Language acquisition follows predictable patterns in all of the different cultures and socioeconomic backgrounds. There is a critical period when language is more easily acquired, which is generally early in life. This ability diminishes greatly the older a person is. Language likely develops prenatally so that newborns have a specific preference for their mother s voice and a predilection to understand her language. Babies prefer videos in which the faces are synchronized with the audio. There are several stages of language development with the first words spoken at around 12 months of age. Two words are put together at a time at between 18 months and 2 years of age. Over time, the child s lexicon grows dramatically. In any given language, words are the representation of people, ideas, events, and places. Language is tightly connected to one s surroundings and their culture. Cultures that do not have words related to the past tense often do not think much about the past, it is believed by some researchers. The interplay between thought and language, however, is still being studied among researchers.

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PROBLEM SOLVING Problem solving on some level is a part of everyday life and not just something applicable to subjects like mathematics. Problem solving depends first on identifying what the problem is. Then comes a problem-solving strategy, in which some plan of action is developed in order to solve the problem. There are different ways of approaching a problem, such as using trial and error. There are several approaches to problem solving. One of these is trial and error, which involves using different options until one works. Another is the algorithm strategy, which is a step-by-step approach. A third approach is heuristic, which involves working backwards and breaking up a task into different steps. A heuristic approach is generally a rule of thumb approach. It is used when there is little time to make a decision and when there is too much information to process. It can also be used when there isn t enough information to make a decision. The heuristic approach is used to break a large task into the smallest steps manageable. Writing a paper by getting an outline, writing a rough draft, and completing the final paper is an example of using a heuristic approach. One pitfall to problem solving is called functional fixedness. It involves the inability to see an object as being useful for anything other than what it was originally designed for. People who can think outside the box and use divergent thinking are better at overcoming this pitfall. Another pitfall is called anchoring bias. It involves focusing on just one piece of information to make a decision on something rather than on the totality of the information. Still another is the confirmation bias, which is the tendency to focus on those things that confirm the person s existing beliefs. Hindsight bias involves the believe that something witnessed was predictable when it was not. A representative bias is the unintentional stereotyping of something or someone. The availability bias is when a decision is based on an example that might be faulty or based on a faulty precedent.

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SOURCES OF INTELLIGENCE Psychologists have long debated the origins of intelligence. Some of the issues surrounding this have been answered in the Minnesota Study of Twins Reared Apart. In it, the intelligence quotient or IQ was measured in different populations. Identical twins reared together and identical twins reared apart had basically the same similarities in their IQs, especially when compared to siblings who were not identical. Even so, it is also believed that intelligence can be shaped by the environment a child is raised in. Environmental stimuli play a lesser role but are still important in enhancing or inhibiting the IQs of children. Every person reacts to their environment based on their underlying genetics. This is referred to as the range of reaction. It means that the genetic potential is fixed but the reaching of that potential depends on factors such as environmental stimulation. Some ethnic groups perform more poorly on IQ tests but this is believed to be due to the environment and the test itself than on true intelligence. The same is true of kids raised in poor socioeconomic circumstances, who have greater degrees of stress. There are also biases in the IQ tests that discriminate against certain minority groups. Learning disabilities affect cognition in different ways. They can affect both language and reading, which are the most common learning disabilities. Learning disabilities are more likely related to specific neurological impairments rather than a developmental disability or global intelligence. Dyslexia is a difficulty in reading, while a language disability is difficulty understanding or making use of spoken words. ADHD is highly linked to also having a learning disability. Dysgraphia is the inability to easily write with pen and paper legibly. Thoughts are not easily put on paper, even though intelligence can be normal. They do better on oral exams. The most common learning disorder is dyslexia, which is a reading or letter processing disorder. Dyscalculia is an inability to easily understand mathematical principles.

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INTELLIGENCE ASSESSMENT The IQ or intelligence quotient is generally measured on a standardized test. IQ tests are used by psychologists and educators to identify those students who need educational help and those who may need intellectual stimulation because of high intelligence. A good intelligence test will identify more than one type of intelligence and will focus less on things like academic learning and more on things like problem solving. The first intelligence test was developed by Sir Francis Galton in the late 1800s. This was followed by intelligence testing developed by Alfred Binet, which was designed to be used on children who might need extra help in school. It was later standardized so that it could be used on large numbers of individuals with consistent results. Standardization results in a bell curve and means that there is consistency in the administration, scoring patterns, and interpretation of the test. The current test used most commonly is the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale. Another test sometimes used is the Wechsler IQ test. It was developed by David Wechsler 1939 and makes use of verbal and nonverbal components. There are actually three such tests, used on children and adults. The Wechsler scale is often used in the school system. The test uncovered what has been identified as the Flynn Effect, which is the observation that each generation of children scores better than the previous one, which does not mean they are necessarily more intelligent. Intelligence tests are based on a bell curve, which is, of course, shaped like a bell. Figure 21 shows a typical bell curve:

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Figure 21.

In order to have a good bell curve, you need to have an accurate representative sample. This means having enough of the general population in order to make a determination of the lower, middle, and upper ends of the curve. For example, you cannot use a group of basketball players to make a bell curve of people s heights because almost all of these people will be tall. With regard to intelligence quotients, the average test score is 100. Standard deviations can say how wide the spread is on a bell curve. In intelligence testing, every 15 points identify one standard deviation away from the mean. Individuals with an intelligence quotient of 130 or more are considered superior. A score of 70 or less means a cognitive delay. There are mild, moderate, severe, and profound levels of intellectual delay.

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KEY TAKEAWAYS •

Thoughts are organized into concepts and schemas. A prototype is a representation of a concept.

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Depending on the theorist, there are different types of intelligence, which can range from academic intelligence to street smarts.

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Language is a naturally acquired phenomenon, but there are windows when language is more easily acquired.

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Problem solving involves different steps; there are several pitfalls in the problemsolving process.

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Intelligence is set by genetics but is maximized by the environment.

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Intelligence tests are standardized so that they can be used on large groups of people in order to identify the person who needs help or the person who is exceptionally gifted.

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QUIZ 1. What is not true of concepts? a. They are ways of organizing thoughts. b. They tend to be very abstract things. c. They help to see relationships between different things. d. They involve the use of prototypes. Answer: b. Concepts do not need to be abstract and can be something very specific, such as a concept involving the different categories of dogs or birds. 2. In organizing thinking, what is the largest category things can be put into as part of cognition? a. Prototype b. Concept c. Schema d. Observation Answer: c. Schemata are the broadest category of thought. It is a way of organizing concepts in order to make quick judgments about something that has been observed. 3. What least describes emotional intelligence? a. The ability to understand the themes in a storybook b. The ability to recognize social cues c. The ability to have empathy toward others d. The ability to recognize one’s own emotions Answer: a. Emotional intelligence involves both intrapersonal and interpersonal intelligence; it involves each of these things except the ability to understand themes in a storybook.

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4. What type of thinking or intelligence involved in creativity? a. Interpersonal thinking b. Analytical thinking c. Convergent thinking d. Divergent thinking Answer: d. Creativity strongly depends on divergent thinking, which is also referred to as the ability to think outside the box. 5. When do babies first learn about language? a. Prenatal period b. 1 to 3 months c. 4 to 8 months d. 9 to 12 months Answer: a. Babies actually learn language prenatally because they will prefer the sound of their mother s voice and her language at the time of birth. 6. When does a child say his or her first words? a. Six months b. Twelve months c. Eighteen months d. Two years Answer: b. A child s first words are usually spoken at about twelve months of age, although they won t put words together until nearly two years of age.

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7. What type of problem-solving pitfall is associated with the inability to see something as useful for something other than what it was intended for? a. Representative bias b. Confirmation bias c. Functional fixedness d. Anchoring bias Answer: c. Functional fixedness is the inability to see something as being useful for anything other than what it was intended for. 8. What type of problem-solving pitfall involves focusing on just one aspect of the problem rather than on multiple solutions or aspects? a. Representative bias b. Confirmation bias c. Hindsight bias d. Anchoring bias Answer: d. An anchoring bias involves focusing on just one aspect of a problem instead of looking at the totality of the problem and its solutions. 9. Which learning disability affects the ability to write legibly? a. Dyslexia b. Dyscalculia c. Dysgraphia d. Language processing disorder Answer: c. Individuals with dysgraphia have normal intelligence but an inability to write legibly.

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10. Which learning disability affects the ability to understand or form speech easily? a. Dyslexia b. Dyscalculia c. Dysgraphia d. Language processing disorder Answer: d. The person who has language processing disorder has difficulty with the understanding and production of normal speech. This usually involves hearing or saying spoken words coherently.

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CHAPTER NINE: PERSONALITY The focus of this chapter is personality. Personality involves the traits a person has that are consistent over time. There are multiple theories on what personality is all about and theories on personality development, which are discussed in this chapter. Specific personality tests can be used to evaluate a person s personality. Finally, there are personality disorders covered in the chapter, which represent deviations in what can be called a normal personality.

PERSONALITY DEFINED An individual s personality involves the traits and patterns of behavior that exist over time and that consistently represents how the person feels, thinks, and behaves. The personality is not easily changed and is stable over time. Personality comes out of the term persona”, which is Latin for the mask, even though personality is much more than the mask one wears in front of other people. Personality has been studied since the time of Hippocrates, when personality was believed to be based on choleric temperament, melancholic temperament, sanguine temperament, and phlegmatic temperament, which were considered the four senses of humor. Imbalances in the humor were believed to be the cause of personality disorders. Phrenology was a popular personality theory in the 1780s but lacked scientific backing. Kant believed in four temperament types, while Wundt felt that there were two major axes that determined personality. The axes were emotional/non-emotional and changeable/unchangeable. Sigmund Freud, as you will hear soon, was the first to develop a larger, more comprehensive theory on personality, including how personality disorders develop. He felt as though personality was partly based on childhood sexual drives and conflicts. This was the dominant theory on personality for much of the early 20th century.

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PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT Personality development happens mainly in the early years of life and is determined by one s temperament, environment, and character. Temperament is largely genetic, although the exact genes responsible for this are unknown. The environment also is a major factor in the development of personality. Temperament probably plays the largest role in determining personality. High-quality parenting also plays a critical role. Character involves the behavioral, cognitive, and emotional patterns one learns from experiences in life. It also depends on one s moral development. We have already discussed Erick Erickson s stages of development but we will talk about them again as they related to personality. Erikson did psychotherapy in children in order to identify those crises that adversely affect personality. In infancy, there is trust versus mistrust. If the child is mistreated in this phase, mistrust is a part of their personality. Toddlers grapple with autonomy or shame, which is seen as stubbornness and tantrums during that phase. Preschoolers learn initiative versus guilt and have an active fantasy life. School age children learn industry versus inferiority, which affects their self-discipline. Adolescents have identity or identity diffusion, which helps to form their overall identity as an adult. Carl Rogers also studied personality development. It was theorized that childhood experiences strongly affect a child s personality. There are crucial periods in the child s life where environmental factors have the greatest influence on personality. Culture also forms personality because certain cultures emphasize different aspects of a child s personality development.

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FREUD AND NEO-FREUDIANS IN PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT Freud was the first to comprehensively study personality and pathologies associated with one s personality. He studied a few patients extensively and uncovered the talking cure, which was the basis for modern psychotherapy. He compared the mind to an iceberg, of which only a small proportion is the conscious mind. About 90 percent is unconscious. Things like Freudian slips of the tongue were felt to be related to things deep within one s subconscious. Freud believed that personality is based on conflicts that arise between two different forces. These are biological, aggressive, and pleasure-seeking drives, and internalized control over these drives. Freud labeled three factors or systems in the mind. These were the id, the ego, and the superego. The id is subconscious, which is primitive urges or drives. It is present from the time of birth and represents urges related to thirst, hunger, and sex. It seeks immediate gratification. The superego is like the internal parent, that understands right from wrong and is the person s conscience. It judges and controls one s behaviors, which can lead to self-pride, or guilty feelings, depending on the superego s success. The ego is rational and is part of the personality seen by others. It balances the controversy between the id and the superego. As you can imagine, the superego and the id are in continual conflict so it takes the ego to find a rational middle ground between them. Those with a healthy personality have a strong ego. Any imbalance in this personality system is considered likely to result in neurosis. Strong superegos involve being guilty and denying the person s ability to have pleasure, while strong ids can indicate a psychopath. According to Freud, people have certain defense mechanisms or protections they use to defend themselves. These are largely anxiety-reducing factors that are subconscious. Everyone, even healthy individuals, use defense mechanisms. Some of these include the following:

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Denial—refusal to accept unpleasant events in one’s reality.

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Displacement—the transfer of unacceptable urges onto a less threatening target person.

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Projection—having unacceptable feelings blamed on another.

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Rationalization—justifying a behavior by substituting acceptable reasons for lessacceptable ones.

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Reaction formation—decreasing anxiety by adopting contrary beliefs to what one really believes.

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Regression—going back to less mature coping strategies.

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Repression—having the suppression of painful thoughts and memories.

While defense mechanisms are common, overuse of these mechanisms is not considered healthy. With defense mechanisms such as repression, overwhelming memories are sent to the subconscious, even though they may lead to symptoms later in life. With reaction formation, a person may say and do things that are the opposite of what they actually believe. We have already talked about Freud s psychosexual stages of development; however, they apply to one s personality as well. These, as you remember, are the oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital stages of development. Many criticize these stages and you should know that they were developed within the concept of the cultural and social climate of the early 20th century in Vienna, Austria. With the oral stage, deficits in this stage lead to conflicts related to things like smoking, overeating, and alcohol abuse. In the anal stage, problems can lead to what Freudians refer to as the anal-retentive personality. These types of people are perfectionistic. The phallic stage can lead to gender identity and relationship problems. Only those who have issues in the latency phase and genital phase generally have few problems later in life.

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There are several researchers who are considered neo-Freudians because they basically believe parts of what Freud set out to show but have less of an emphasis on sex. Alfred Adler founded individual psychology and first proposed the idea of the inferiority complex. He believed that people are driven by an attempt to gain superiority over others, which helps them to form personality. Adler saw childhood development as largely based on social needs and the need to work together with others. There are three social tasks that Adler believed people should attain: occupational tasks, societal tasks, and love or intimacy tasks. It was believed that social motives rather than sexual ones drove the personality. He also believed that birth order affects a person s personality. Carl Jung was also a Neo-Freudian. His theory was that of analytical psychology, which was the balance between the conscious and unconscious thinking. It was felt that the work in doing this happens throughout life as one integrates unconscious thoughts into one s consciousness. There is the concept of the collective unconscious, which involves archetypes or universal themes found in everyone in different cultures. The approaches of extroversion and introversion were first proposed by Jung. People are believed to fall somewhere on a continuum between being introverted and extroverted. Karen Horney was also a Neo-Freudian. She believed that every person had the ability to achieve self-realization and that people should move toward a healthier self rather than focus on the past. She studied how children deal with unconscious anxiety. Some coping strategies include moving toward people, which is the seeking of positive affection from one s parents, moving against people, which involves bullying and aggressive behavior, and moving away from people, which involves avoidance and isolation from others.

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APPROACHES TO PERSONALITY There are other approaches to personality that are not considered Neo-Freudian. Behaviorists do not see personality as being biological. They believe that environment was the only thing that shapes behavior and that people behave in certain ways. According to behaviorists, personality is not fixed in childhood but develops throughout one s life. The social-cognitive theories were first suggested by Albert Bandura. With this theory, it is believed that environment and cognition are sources of one s personality. There is the concept of reciprocal determinism, which argues that cognition, behavior, and context interact with one another and influence one another. Cognition is everything that has been learned, while context refers to the situation or environment. Other theories proposed by Bandura were that learning is largely vicarious, which is referred to as observational learning or modeling. Another is self-efficacy, which is a person s level of confidence in their own abilities. High self-efficacy involves believing that one s goals are reachable and that tasks can be mastered. Julian Rotter developed the idea of locus of control, which is the belief that a person has control over his or her own life. Some people have an internal locus of control, while others have an external locus of control. People who have an internal locus of control do better in their careers, are more independent, do better academically, are less depressed, and are better able to cope. Another personality theorist was Walter Mischel felt that a person s behaviors were inconsistent among different circumstances but was consistent within the same circumstances. His ideas mainly focused on self-regulation, which was identifying a certain set of goals and achieving them using internal and external feedback. Selfregulation is also called will power. Children with better self-regulation did better in school and had better relationships with fewer problems in the area of substance abuse. There are also humanistic views on personality development. Robert Maslow was a humanist and we have already talked about his hierarchy of needs. Rogers, on the other hand, felt that self-concept was important, which is to answer the question of who am

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I?”. the self is divided into two categories: the ideal self, which is who you want to be, and real self, which is who you really are. If one has similar thoughts about each category, this is when one is the healthiest. Incongruence, however, involves maladjustment. There is a biological basis behind personality, according to the Minnesota Study of Twins Reared Apart. Identical twins, even when reared apart, have similar personality styles. There are likely many different genes, plus epigenetic factors, which are those things that control whether or not a gene is expressed. Temperament is largely biological. There are babies that are easy, hard, or slow to warm up, which later affects their personality. There are two factors that affect personality. These are reactivity and self-regulation. Reactivity involves how a person responds to a new environment, while self-regulation is the ability to control one s response to their environment. Some people are anxious in a new environment, while others do not really notice it. The trait theorists believe that certain traits can together identify what a person s personality is. There are three categories of personality traits. These are cardinal traits, central traits, and secondary traits. Cardinal traits are the dominant ones in the entire personality. Central traits are also obvious but not as much as cardinal traits. Secondary traits are less obvious or consistent and are generally seen under certain circumstances. Raymond Cattell developed about 170 different traits a person can have. There is also the five-factor model, which looks at five different traits and scores people on a continuum of these factors. The five factors are openness, conscientiousness, extroversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism. Most people fall in the middle and do not have extremes in any of these factors. These traits are particularly stable throughout one s lifetime. These traits are basically the same across ages, cultures, and ethnicities.

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PERSONALITY ASSESSMENT There are many different ways of assessing a person s personality. These are used in different settings, such as in occupational settings, educational settings, and clinical settings. They can be used, for example, to decide if a person s personality is suited to a particular job description. One common way of determining personality is the selfreport inventory, which is most commonly used in most settings. These are referred to as Likert scales because each question ranges from strongly disagree to strongly agree. The most widely used personality inventory is the MMPI or the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory. It has 567 questions and are true-false questions. There was a revised test in 1987 called the MMPI-2, which had a wider audience used to standardize the test. There are ten scales measured: depression, hypochondriasis, hysteria, masculinity or femininity, paranoia, psychopathic deviance, hypomania, psychasthenia and social introversion. It is used in many clinical psychology circles. There are scales for lying, faking, and reliability. There are several different types of projective tests that are based on Freud s defense mechanisms. It is a way of assessing unconscious processes. Instead of questions and answers, the test is open ended and ambiguous. Things like impulses, feelings, and desires are talked about by the person who is exposed to visual cards. There are four common projective tests. These include the following: •

Rorschach Inkblot Test—the person looks at symmetrical inkblot cards and is asked about what they are or what they mean. The goal is to reveal depression, anxiety, and psychosis.

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Thematic Apperception Test—these are ambiguous pictures in which the person is asked to tell a story about the picture. It can be used to look at psychological disorders but has very little standardization.

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Rotter Incomplete Sentence Blank—there are different sentences that need to be completed by the person with 1 to 2-word answers. It is related to a word association test. It is used in career counseling and in clinical psychology.

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The Contemporized Themes Concerning Blacks Test—this is a projective test specifically used to measure personality in African Americans, developed by Robert Williams. A related test is the TEMAS Multicultural Thematic Apperception Test, which is used for Hispanic young people.

PERSONALITY DISORDERS In this section, we talk about the different personality disorders. According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual-5 or DSM-5, there are ten personality disorders, which are grouped according to clusters called Cluster A, Cluster B, and Cluster C. Cluster A personality disorders are those that are odd, eccentric, or bizarre. Cluster B are those that are dramatic or erratic. Cluster C are those that are anxious or fearful. You should know that none of the personality disorders are necessarily cut and dried, nor are they independent of one another. Some people have clear-cut personality problems but do not fall into just one category. Personality disorders represent enduring but maladaptive patterns of thinking and behaving that are difficult to change. Most people do not seek help for their personality disorder because they do not see them as abnormal or problematic but can seek help for other problems affected by their personality disorder. Paranoid personality disorder is related to schizoid and schizotypal personality disorder. The patient has a particular distrust of others, always looking out for ways to validate their belief that people are untrustworthy. They are suspicious and guarded, and often feel grudges they cannot get over. They do not easily build close relationships with others. They often use projection as a defense mechanism. Schizoid personality disorder is one in which the person directs his or her attention toward an inner life and not toward the external world. The patient is not warm, is aloof and unattached to others, being instead prone to fantasy and introspection. They have limited emotional responses and little desire for intimacy but there are theories that the person wants intimacy but cannot attain this without distress. These people are odd but are not generally bothered by this.

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The person with schizotypal personality disorder has an odd behavior pattern, odd speech, and unusual thinking that can be similar to schizophrenia. Magical thinking is possible as well as other odd belief systems. They fear others and fear social interaction. They often have ideas of reference, which is the belief that events in life are related to them somehow. Unlike schizoid personality disorder, these people have a fear of others. They carry a risk of developing schizophrenia. The person with antisocial personality disorder has a cluster B personality disorder. This is more common in men and involves a disregard for the feelings of others, a disregard for social rules, impulsive behavior, and a lack of guilt. They are frequently charming and can have relationships but these are turbulent and short-lived relationships. Criminal behavior is most commonly seen in this disorder. Borderline personality disorder involves a lack of sense of self as well as fears of abandonment and emptiness. There are intense relationships that tend to be short in duration, with emotional instability and outbursts of anger. Acts of self-harm and suicidal threats are common, which lead to the attention of the medical professional. It is more common in women and may be related to having been exposed to childhood sexual abuse. Individuals with histrionic personality disorder have a poor sense of self-worth and need the approval and attention of others in order to have some sense of wellbeing. They tend to be dramatic and careful about their appearance, being seductive and charming. They can seem insincere, which affects their romantic relationships. They are highly sensitive to rejection and criticism, which makes them more histrionic in their behavior. Narcissistic personality disorder involves the need to feel important and entitled. The person is often envious of others and feels the need to be admired by people. They lack empathy and lie frequently. This person is prone to feeling angry and full of revenge, often flying into what s called a narcissistic rage. Deep down, however, the person has a very low self-esteem. Avoidant personality disorder is a class C personality disorder, along with dependent and anankastic personality disorder. Avoidant people feel inferior, socially inept and unappealing. They often feel rejected, criticized, and embarrassed. They do not like

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meeting others because they feel they are rejected by others. These tend to be anxious people that have struggled with rejection in childhood. They monitor their internal reactions so their behavior is not fluid, which makes them feel more inept. People with dependent personality disorder have a lack of self-confidence and feel like they need to be taken care of. They need help with decision-making and fear abandonment. They often feel helpless and inadequate so they surround themselves with people who they feel can protect them. They idealize the person who is competent or powerful. They are often childlike and do not have a great deal of insight into their thoughts and behavior. The person with anankastic personality disorder is also said to have obsessivecompulsive personality traits. There is a preoccupation with details, order, lists, and schedules. The person is so perfectionistic that they cannot complete a task easily. The person is rigid and controlling, often lacking a sense of humor. There is underlying anxiety over the perception of a lack of control over the world around them.

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KEY TAKEAWAYS •

Personality involves enduring traits of thoughts, emotions, and behavior that are extremely difficult to change and last throughout the person’s life.

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Personality largely develops in childhood but can continue to change throughout one’s lifetime.

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There are different theories on personality development that vary as to whether it is largely an inherited biological phenomenon or a product of one’s environment.

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The testing of personality can include self-report questionnaires and projective testing.

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Personality disorders fall into three categories and represent social and emotional difficulties in relating to the world that are very difficult to change.

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QUIZ 1. What was the earliest theory of personality based on? a. Phrenology b. Innate temperament c. Personality axes d. Humors Answer: d. Hippocrates first developed the idea of four humors, which represented fluids in the body that helped to determine what a person s personality was. 2. What factor is least likely to play a role in one’s overall personality development? a. Temperament b. Intelligence c. Character d. Environment Answer: b. Personality development depends on three factors, which are temperament, character, and environment. Intelligence plays the least role. 3. Which defense mechanism involves going back to an earlier developmental stage as a coping strategy? a. Regression b. Repression c. Reaction formation d. Projection Answer: a. Regression is a defense mechanism that involves going back to an earlier stage of development in order to cope with something that is unacceptable.

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4. Which defense mechanism involves adopting beliefs that are contrary to one’s actual beliefs? a. Displacement b. Repression c. Reaction formation d. Projection Answer: c. Reaction formation involves the adoption of beliefs or a belief system that is the opposite of what one actually believes. 5. According to social-cognitive theory of personality proposed by Bandura, what is not one of the three things that interact and influence one another to determine personality? a. Context b. Subconscious desires c. Behavior d. Cognition Answer: b. According to the social-cognitive theory of personality, context, behavior, and cognition all influence one another in order to form one s personality. 6. What is truer of a person who has an external locus of control versus an internal locus of control? a. Do better academically b. Have better coping strategies c. Are more depressed d. Are more independent Answer: c. Each of these is something one would see in a person who has an internal locus of control, except that people with an external locus of control are more depressed in general.

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7. Which personality disorder is most likely to have close personal relationships with another person? a. Paranoid personality disorder b. Schizoid personality disorder c. Schizotypal personality disorder d. Dependent personality disorder Answer: d. People with paranoid, schizoid, and schizotypal personality disorders do not easily have close personal relationships with others. People with dependent personality disorder will have close ties with others but the relationship won t likely be healthy. 8. Which personality disorder is least likely to be trusting of others? a. Anankastic personality disorder b. Borderline personality disorder c. Paranoid personality disorder d. Narcissistic personality disorder Answer: c. People with paranoid personality disorder are generally mistrusting of others and do not easily have close interpersonal relationships. 9. Which personality disorder involves a constant need to be admired by others yet involves being extremely envious of others? a. Anankastic personality disorder b. Antisocial personality disorder c. Avoidant personality disorder d. Narcissistic personality disorder e. Answer: d. People with narcissistic personality disorder have a constant need to be admired but feel extremely envious of other people.

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10. Which personality disorder is most associated with obsessive-compulsive tendencies? a. Anankastic personality disorder b. Antisocial personality disorder c. Avoidant personality disorder d. Narcissistic personality disorder Answer: a. The person with anankastic personality disorder often has obsessive-compulsive tendencies as part of their personality pattern.

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CHAPTER TEN: MEMORY This chapter introduces the subject of memory. Memory is not just a single thing as there are several types of memory. Memory is largely biological, with certain parts of the brain contributing to the experience of memory. Some people have memory deficits, which are discussed in the chapter. In order to combat memory impairment, many individuals will use specific memory enhancement techniques in order to improve memory.

TYPES OF MEMORY Memory in humans is not so different from the memory inside a computer. In different time periods, there will be the process associated with memory, such as encoding of observations, storage, and later retrieval of those things that have been remembered. Prior to any of these things, however, there needs to be the acquisition of data from the environment. Once data is observed, it is encoded. Encoding is the intake or input of information into the brain s memory structures. It is organized along with related information that is already known and we make new concepts to add to existing ones. There is automatic processing, which involves the encoding of certain details, such as what you had for breakfast. It doesn t require any conscious awareness. Effortful processing requires extra work and includes those things that we consciously assimilate and memorize. Information is best when it is meaningful. If a sentence does not make sense, it is not easily remembered. Words that do not have meaning are also least likely to be remembered. There are three types of encoding everyone does when memorizing something. These include the following: •

Semantic encoding—this is the specific encoding of words and what they mean. People asked to memorize a group of words that mean similar things together, making them easier to retrieve.

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Visual encoding—this is the ability to encode images or pictures. This is helpful in encoding because people think more in terms of images.

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Acoustic encoding—this is the ending of sounds. Words that are heard can be remembered but they will usually remember things that have associated visual images. Abstract words are less easy to recall.

When it comes to acoustic learning, it may not be surprising that memory is best when the information is presented in song form or in rhymes. Rhymes work because it is the sounds themselves that are more easily encoded. Verbal information is best encoded and recalled when semantic encoding occurs rather than visual and auditory encoding. What improves recall better is the self-reference effect. This involves relating an item to be remembered to something that is important to you. After encoding, there is storage of the data. This is the creation of a permanent record. There are three stages of memory storage. These include sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory. These tend to happen in that specific order. Rehearsal needs to be done in short-term memory in order to retain it. If sensory or short-term memory is not retained, it is lost. This is referred to as the Atkinson-Shiffrin model. Sensory memory is the brief storage of sensory data, such as taste, sight, and sound events. It lasts only a couple of seconds and cannot be completely absorbed because there is so much of this data to process. Most of the information is not considered important but, if it is felt to be important, the data will go to short-term memory. Short-term memory is also temporary. It is also referred to as working memory. It may be able to connect something already stored in long-term memory. It lasts about 20 seconds. The average number of words that can be stored in short-term memory is seven words. It can go to long-term memory through rehearsal but can also be lost. Memory goes from short-term memory to long-term memory, this is referred to as memory consolidation. Long-term memory involves the continuous storage of memorized data. There is no limit to the amount that can be remembered here. It can be likened to the hard drive on the computer. It isn t necessarily quickly retrievable but can be accessed when it is needed. Some will be concrete facts, while others are much more vague. 156

There are two types of long-term memory. These are explicit memories and implicit memories. These are differently affected with things like brain damage. Explicit memories are consciously remembered and brought forth when necessary. This is sometimes referred to as declarative memory. Implicit memory or non-declarative memory is subconscious. They are formed by behaviors. There are further subdivisions of explicit and implicit memory. Episodic memory is explicit and involves experienced events. Semantic knowledge is explicit and involves remembering knowledge and concepts. Procedure memory is implicit and involves skills and actions. Emotional conditioning is also an implicit memory. Retrieval involves the ability to get a memory back into our recall when needed. This is called retrieval. These memories come from long-term storage and are necessary for daily functioning. There are three ways to achieve this retrieval process. These are recall, recognition, and relearning. Recall means using cues to remember a memory without having to use cues. Recognition is when you can identify things that you have already learned but now are seeing again. It is what happens in a multiple-choice examination. Relearning involves learning information after not using it from a previous learning experience.

BIOLOGICAL BASIS OF MEMORY The question put to researchers in the beginning of memory work is where in the brain are memories stored. Karl Lashley sought to identify the engram, which was where memory would be represented physically. This was not found and he came to believe in the equipotentiality hypothesis, which is that, if an area of the brain is damaged, another part of the brain can take over the memory. Newer research is being undertaken to find this engram. While it hasn t been found, the main areas of the brain involved in remembering things are the hippocampus, the amygdala, the cerebellum, and the prefrontal cortex in the frontal lobe. As you might remember, the amygdala is an organ related to emotions, like anger and fear. Because the storage of memory is influenced by stress and by stress hormones, things like the fear response and fear-related memories are partly controlled by the

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amygdala. Under emotionally arousing circumstances, the amygdala will encode memories at a deeper level. The hippocampus is most involved in memory processing. It aids normal recognition memory as well as spatial memory. It gives memory meaning and connects old memories to new memories. Finally, it turns short-term memory into long-term memory. New semantic knowledge cannot be assimilated if the hippocampus on both sides is damaged. The cerebellum is important in classical conditioning, motor learning, and procedural memory. The prefrontal cortex is also associated with processing and retaining information. There are specific neurotransmitters that are associated with the acquisition of memory. These include epinephrine, serotonin, dopamine, acetylcholine, and glutamate. No one knows exactly which memory function is associated with which neurotransmitter. Strong emotions will trigger strong memories, while weak emotions will trigger weaker memories, according to arousal theory. Stronger emotions activate greater numbers of hormones and neurotransmitters. These will strengthen the memory. Glutamate is an activating neurotransmitter that is triggered by stress and increases the chance of a strong memory.

MEMORY IMPAIRMENT There are several phenomena that are associated with some type of memory impairment. Amnesia is a long-term memory loss that is the result of some type of physical trauma, psychological trauma, and brain diseases. It can be seen after severe head injuries. With anterograde amnesia, new information cannot be remembered but things before the injury are remembered. This is a problem with the hippocampus. Procedural memories, however, can be formed in most cases. Retrograde amnesia is loss of memory for things that happened in their past, particularly episodic memories. This is the type of amnesia where you don t recognize your loved ones nor can you remember anything about your life. This type of amnesia can be extreme.

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The formation of new memories happens because of construction, while bringing up old memories in the brain is called reconstruction. Memories can also be modified. Suggestibility has something to do with it. This is when misinformation outside of the self creates false memories. Eyewitness misidentification also is common and can lead to convicting the wrong person. There is also the phenomenon of the misinformation effect paradigm, which involves the creation of a false memory because of exposure to incorrect information. This can lead to falsely remembering incidents of childhood sexual abuse. Memories can be repressed, which means that a memory can develop after a period of not remembering it. False memory syndrome, on the other hand, is when this gets out of hand and there are many incidents of unsubstantiated claims. Children will also indicate they were touched inappropriate when nothing took place. These kinds of things can be avoided by utilizing open ended questions and not leading questions. Forgetting is another phenomenon of memory impairment. It represents a loss of longterm memory and can mean several things. It can be an encoding failure such that the memory was never stored. This might happen when we lose our keys. Where they were left was never stored in the first place. Remembering these things requires effortful memory. There have been several memory errors described by psychologist Daniel Schacter. He indicates that there are several errors in memory divided into three main categories: distortion, forgetting and intrusion. These can further be divided into these main errors: •

Transience—the loss of a memory over a period of time.

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Absentmindedness –this is the lapse inattention that can occur from time to time.

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Blocking—there is a temporary block in accessing the information.

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Misattribution—this is when there is distortion about the source of the memory.

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False memory or suggestibility—this can result from leading questions.

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Bias—this is a distortion of a memory because of a belief system.

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Persistence—this is when you cannot forget painful or bad memories. This is an intrusion error.

Interference can happen when something is in your memory but you cannot access it. There are two kinds of interference. The first is proactive interference, when old memories block the recall of new memories. The second is retroactive interference, when newly learned information blocks the recall of previously remembered information. When you get a new locker combination, you may be hindered by the memory of your old locker combination in the case of proactive interference. If you memorize someone s new phone number, it may block access to your old phone number. This is retroactive interference.

MEMORY ENHANCEMENTS There are things you can do to enhance your memory of many things in your life. These are called memory-enhancing strategies. You can rehearse new memories in order to remember them better and put them in long-term memory. Repetition does help in building memory. Chunking is another memory enhancement. This is how phone numbers are memorized. They are divided into area code, three numbers, and then four numbers, which is easier to remember than a string of numbers. Elaborative rehearsal involves thinking about the meaning of something. Area codes represent meaning because they are the same for large sums of people. Mnemonic devices are often used in education to remember things in a certain order, such as the order of the planets. Saying words aloud will enhance memory as will expressive writing about a topic you want to remember. Self-referencing involves applying the information to yourself by writing things in your own words.

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KEY TAKEAWAYS •

There are several types of memory that vary according to the length of time the data can be remembered.

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The parts of the brain helpful in memory include the amygdala, hippocampus, cerebellum, and prefrontal cortex.

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There are many different things that can affect a person’s memory so that things are ultimately forgotten.

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Memory aids will help in remembering things that are considered too difficult to remember by themselves.

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QUIZ 1. What is the last process involved in the phenomenon of memory? a. Acquisition of data b. Data retrieval c. Data storage d. Encoding of observations Answer: b. Memory consists of several interrelated processes, the last of which is data retrieval, which is the remembering or recall of those things that have been already stored in the brain. 2. What would be an example of effortful processing rather than automatic processing? a. Remembering how to drive a car b. Remembering what you did in a given day c. Remembering your name and birthdate d. Remembering the information you study in a test Answer: d. Each of these is automatic processing except for remembering the information that is studied in a test, which requires work. This makes it effortful processing. 3. What is the average number of words a person can recall in short-term memory? a. 3 b. 5 c. 7 d. 10 Answer: c. The majority of people can memorize about 7 words in short-term memory, which lasts about 20 seconds in total.

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4. When it comes to memory, what is memory consolidation? a. The transfer of sensory information into sensory memory. b. The transfer of sensory memory into short-term memory. c. The encoding process that happens when data is gathered. d. The transfer of short-term memory information into long-term memory. Answer: d. Memory consolidation occurs with rehearsal and involves the transfer of short-term memory information or data into long-term memory. 5. What type of memory comes from experiences of certain events over time? a. Episodic memory b. Semantic memory c. Procedural memory d. Emotional conditioning Answer: a. Episodic memory comes directly from experiences of certain events over time. 6. What type of retrieval is most commonly used in multiple-choice examinations? a. Remembering b. Recognition c. Recall d. Relearning Answer: b. Recognition is the ability to recognize something you ve learned by accessing cues that help you remember the correct answer. This is the kind of retrieval that is used in multiple-choice examinations.

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7. What part of the brain is most associated with the transfer of short-term memory into long-term memory? a. Cerebellum b. Amygdala c. Hippocampus d. Prefrontal cortex Answer: c. The hippocampus is most associated with the transfer of short-term memory into long-term memory. It is perhaps the most important structure for learning new memories. 8. What part of the brain is most associated with procedural and motor memory acquisition? a. Cerebellum b. Amygdala c. Hippocampus d. Prefrontal cortex Answer: a. The cerebellum is necessary for procedural learning and motor memory acquisition. 9. The tendency to have false memories because of outside influences is called what? a. Suggestibility b. Construction c. Reconstruction d. Eyewitness misidentification Answer: a. Suggestibility is the tendency to have false memories because of outside influence that alter the person s perception of the truth.

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10. When it comes to memory impairment, what is it called when memory gradually fades over time? a. Intrusion b. Blocking c. Misattribution d. Transience Answer: d. Transience is the gradual failure to remember things over a period of time because memory gradually fades over time.

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CHAPTER ELEVEN: EMOTION AND MOTIVATION This chapter is about emotion and motivation. Motivation explains why a person does what they do. There are specific motivations that are universal to all humans. These include the drives to eat and the drives related to sexuality and sex. This chapter talks about the different disorders related to eating and sexuality, such as eating disorders and gender identity disorder. Finally, the basis of emotions is covered in this chapter.

WHAT IS MOTIVATION? Motivation explains why people do things. It is the specific needs or wants that drive behavior. Motivation can be intrinsic, in which there are internal factors, or extrinsic, in which there are external factors. Intrinsic factors provide personal satisfaction with oneself, while extrinsic factors imply that something is received from others. The three things that drive one intrinsically are autonomy, mastery, and purpose, while the three things that drive one extrinsically are reward, punishment, and compensation. As you can imagine, most motivations a person has have both intrinsic and extrinsic factors. Sometimes, as extrinsic factors increase, intrinsic factors diminish. This is the case when you get paid for something you love to do. Payment ultimately exceeds the drives you have toward mastery or personal satisfaction. This is referred to as the overjustification effect. On the other hand, things like being praised for one s work will increase the intrinsic motivation to do the job. Tangible rewards like money will diminish intrinsic motivation more than intangible rewards, such as being praised for good work. Psychologists and researchers have studied motivation and have different theories. William James studied motivation and felt that there were several instincts that drive motivation. Instincts are species-specific and are not learned. Instincts as they apply to humans specifically have been criticized because of the great impact of learning on behavior. On the other hand, there are definite human instincts, like infant rooting behavior.

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There is the drive theory of motivation, which indicates that whenever internal homeostatic mechanisms are off balance, physiological needs come up. This happens, for example, when you are hungry because you haven t eaten. Drives are different from habits, which are behaviors done regularly in basically the same way each time. If a behavior reduces a drive, it is likely to eventually become a habit. We need a degree of arousal in order to be motivated. If we are not aroused, there can be boredom and a need for stimulation. If there is over-arousal, there will be excitation and a need for behaviors that reduce the over-arousal. Stress is what comes from being over-aroused, such as when you have taken a lot of classes and have difficulty keeping up. Performance is best when there is optimal arousal. Arriving at optimal arousal and optimal performance is not always easily achievable. It depends somewhat on the degree of complexity of the task. This is referred to as the Yerkes-Dodson law, which means that, if a task is simple, arousal levels need to be high for good performance, while if the task is complex, lower levels of arousal are best for good performance. The concept of self-efficacy means that one has a belief in their own capacity to finish a task. This largely depends on success in similar tasks in the past. Albert Bandura believed that motivation has a great deal to do with self-efficacy. Better self-efficacy means an increased likelihood of wanting to do complex tasks. Social theorists have the idea that motives involve a need for affiliation, intimacy, and achievement. Achievement needs drive a person to accomplish things. Affiliation needs drive a person to have positive interactions with others. Intimacy needs drive a person to seek meaningful relationships. Things like play are accomplished because of a need for interpersonal affection, while aggression and domination happen because of a need for human power. Maslow s hierarchy of needs also drives motivation. As you remember, it is based on biological needs, certain individual characteristics, and social conflicts. At the bottom of the hierarchy are needs that are strictly biological, while at the top of the pyramid is selfactualization, when a person has reached full potential. Achieving each of Maslow s needs are believed to be a life-long process.

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If biological needs for shelter and food are not met, it is far less likely to achieve or even seek out needs related to intimacy and self-actualization. There is a stepwise association between the different needs. While Maslow s hierarchy has some application to the real world, it has been criticized because it is very subjective and doesn t always apply to real-world actuality.

SEXUAL BEHAVIOR The evolutionary basis for sexual behavior is the perpetuation of the species but this is a drive that is more complex than that. Sexual behavior and motivation have been extensively researched in animals and somewhat in humans. The hypothalamus is the main brain organ responsible for sexual drive. Lesions to this area affect one s sexual abilities. The limbic system and primarily the amygdala and nucleus accumbens also drive sexual motivation but they do not remove the ability to engage in sexual behavior. The dissociation of the motivation and ability can happen in male and female rats that have been studied. In humans, hypothalamic lesions lead to reduced gonadal functioning and reduced sexual functioning overall. This is because it affects the hormones that control sexual function. In both males and females, it is testosterone, the levels of which are controlled by the hypothalamus, that controls both male and female sexual drives or what s called libido. Alfred Kinsey was one of the first to study sexuality in humans in the late 1940s. He published the first books on human sexuality, which had previously not been studied. Kinsey established an institute that exists today, called the Kinsey Institute for Research, Sex, Gender, and Reproduction. His books are sold frequently to doctors and lay people alike, even though they were controversial in some parts of the world. It was demonstrated by his research that some sexual behaviors considered rare were actually very common in the general public. According to Kinsey s research, women are equally interested in sex compared to men and both genders masturbate. Homosexuality was considered much more common 168

than once thought. He developed a continuum along sexual orientation, extending from purely heterosexual to purely homosexual. Individuals in the middle of the scale were considered bisexual. William Masters and Virginia Johnson studied human sexual behavior in the 1960s. They observed 700 people and got their responses with regard to their sexual behavior. They watched people masturbating and people having intercourse. Specifically, they studied physiological variables during sex and looked at measures of sexual arousal. Masters and Johnson devised the sexual response cycle, which is divided into four separate phases. The first is the excitement phase, also called the arousal phase. Plateau phase involves increased blood flow to the pelvic and genital organs, with swelling of the clitoris and complete penile erection. Then comes orgasm, which involves rhythmic contractions in women. Resolution is when the sexual response diminishes and physiological variables normalize. Women can repeat this cycle quickly but men have a longer refractory period in which an orgasm cannot occur. About 3 to 10 percent of individuals in the US are homosexual or bisexual. It was once believed that socialization and family experiences guided individuals into being homosexual or heterosexual but this has largely been unconfirmed. Genetic and biological mechanisms are now believed to play a large role in sexual orientation. There have been genes believed to play a role and brain structure and function seem to be different in homosexual people compared to heterosexual people. It is now believed that sexual orientation is something a person is born with. Sexual orientation is not a choice but is a stable quality of a given person. While there have been claims of successful conversion from homosexuality to heterosexuality but this has been greatly criticized. These types of conversions are not recommended and are probably not going to be helpful. In some states, conversion therapy is illegal and it is considered to be largely harmful to the person. Gender identity is not the same as sexual orientation. It involves having the sense of being male or female, which is not always the same as one s phenotypical appearance. Gender dysphoria involves having distress about one s gender identity. Not all people

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with gender identity issues have gender dysphoria because they have no distress. This can be seen in children and adults. People with gender identity issues often make the decision to live as their preferred gender. They take transgender hormone therapy and sometimes have surgery to alter their genitals. They change their name, dress, and lives so it matches their true identity.

HUNGER AND SATIETY Hunger is a natural drive to eat and is necessary for survival. There are biological mechanisms in place with regard to hunger but there are also social, economic, and cultural issues that play a strong role in the entire process of eating. Some of these influences will cause eating disorders, which are discussed at the end of this section. The stomach contracts when a person isn t eating, leading to hunger pang. There are certain chemical messages that travel to the brain to begin the drive to eat. The same thing happens when the blood glucose level drops. After eating, the person feels sated or full. Eating behaviors discontinue and the hormone leptin is released, which is the satiety hormone. On the other hand is ghrelin, which is released by the GI tract in order to signal hunger. Parts of the hindbrain and the hypothalamus regulate hunger. Hunger is initiated by hormones like ghrelin, which triggers eating. After eating, the individual is sated and leptin is released so there is no more drive to eat. A person s body weight is partially genetically determined and partially based on the environment. The number of calories eaten and the number of calories consumed are part of the environmental input into body weight. Fat is made when there is an excess of calories eaten versus what is burned off. The metabolic rate is also part of this. Metabolic rates differ from person to person. In general, body weight is relatively stable, with the weight remaining within a narrow range. This has led to the set-point theory, which indicates that every person has an ideal body weight, which cannot easily be changed. This ideal body weight is genetically predetermined. People who lose weight do not have a change in their metabolic weight.

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Critics of this theory point to the many social and environmental influences on a person s weight. Overweight and obesity refer to having a body mass index (BMI) that is greater than what is considered healthy. The body mass index is a calculated number based on a person s weight and height. A normal body mass index is 18.5 to 25. A BMI of between 25 and 29.9 is said to be overweight. A BMI between 30 and 39.9 is obese, while morbid obesity is a BMI above 40. The BMI is basically a good indicator of obesity but it doesn t tell the difference between fat and muscle so muscular people could be misconstrued as being obese. Figure 22 shows a BMI chart:

Figure 22.

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There are several negative consequences for being overweight, including type 2 diabetes, colon cancer, infertility, arthritis, liver disease, stroke, sleep apnea, breast cancer, and heart disease. About a third of the US population is obese and about two-thirds of adults are overweight. Being overweight is also something seen in children. Socioeconomic status and one s physical environment play a role in getting to be overweight. It takes exercise and healthy food options to maintain weight, which is not always available in some communities. Diet and exercise are important to losing weight. In those who cannot lose weight by themselves, bariatric or weight loss surgery is sometimes utilized. The surgery modifies the stomach and other parts of the GI tract in order to limit both the intake of food and absorption of food. It is more effective than non-surgical options for weight loss.

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EATING DISORDERS Eating disorders involve having a normal body weight or a low body weight and is often characterized by fear of gaining weight, although individuals with binge eating disorder can be overweight as a result of excessively bingeing on food. People with binge eating disorder do not purge but feel guilty and anxious after eating a large amount of food. There are several types of eating disorders. Bulimia or bulimia nervosa involves binge eating in some cases along with efforts to get rid of the food through laxative abuse or vomiting. Excessive exercise can be a part of this disorder. Some of the adverse consequences of this disorder include heart failure, kidney failure, and tooth decay. There is an increased risk for substance abuse, depression, and anxiety. About 1 percent of women and about half a percent of men will have bulimia in their lifetime. Individuals with anorexia nervosa have a lower than normal body weight with episodes of starvation and excessive exercise. There is a distorted body image so they see themselves as overweight when they are not. There are adverse effects of this disorder, including kidney failure, heart failure, osteoporosis, decreased sexual function, and death. There is an increased risk of psychological problems, such as anxiety, depression, and substance abuse. The prevalence is about 1 percent of women and fewer men. Individuals who have what s called OSFED have other specified feeding or eating disorder” may have features of bulimia or anorexia but do not meet the criteria for either. Some can have things like purging disorder, which is the person who does not binge eat but uses bingeing techniques like vomiting, laxative abuse, or excessive exercise in order to get rid of food. Eating disorders can happen in any culture but is more prevalent in Western cultures because of cultural ideals related to one s weight. It tends to be the highest in adolescent girls between 15 and 19 years of age. There are social and genetic factors that probably play into getting an eating disorder.

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BASIS OF EMOTION Emotions are subjective and are also described as feelings. Emotions are different from mood. Emotions are not long-lasting and are reactive to the environment, while mood is prolonged, less intense, and is not a response to the environment. Moods are not conscious while emotions are consciously perceived. Emotions are a combination of psychological appraisal, physiological arousal, and subjective experience. They are influenced by past experiences, culture, and psychosocial background. Different individuals will have different emotions in similar situations. There are different theories on what emotions are all about. The James-Lange theory says that emotions are mainly physiological. They are based on different effects of the autonomic nervous system: the sympathetic or parasympathetic nervous system. There is the sympathetic fight or flight response that determines some emotions, while the parasympathetic rest and digest response determines other emotions. The Cannon-Bard theory says that both physiological states and emotional experiences will act separately to determine an emotion. This explains partly why people will have different emotions to different things and indicates that psychological states play an equal role in what a person feels. People who do not feel physiological arousal from a spinal cord injury still have emotions. The Schachter-Singer two-factor theory says that both psychological and physiological factors play a role in emotions. It indicates that there is a cognitive role in having an emotion. Because there are just a few physiological states and many different emotions, there must be some cognitive component to arrive at the different emotions. Strong emotional responses are linked to strong physiological arousal states. These can produce sweating, increased heart rate, and increased respiratory rate. Polygraphs measure lying by asking the person questions and looking at physiological reactions. There is, however, no standardized way of predicting what physiological reactions are linked to lying.

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The cognitive-mediational theory indicates that emotions are based on a person s appraisal of a given stimulus. The appraisal will change the emotional response to the stimulus and is largely unconscious. Appraisal happens before any cognitive thinking. Emotions are highly linked to the limbic system, which is the amygdala, hypothalamus, thalamus, and hippocampus. The hypothalamus helps to activate the sympathetic nervous system, while the thalamus relays sensations and projects them out to the amygdala and the cerebrum. The amygdala also sends information to the cerebrum. The hippocampus is the part of the brain that connects emotional experiences to cognitive thinking. The amygdala is strongly correlated with fear and anxiety. There are several clusters of nuclei in the amygdala, including the basolateral complex and the central nucleus, which interact with sensation and attention. These are activated in things like classical conditioning. The treatment of an animal in early life can affect the amygdala and will determine emotional responses later in life. The rat pups that were abused showed evidence of depressive behavior as they grew older. It is believed that the same thing happens in human subjects. The hippocampus is also linked to mood disorders and anxiety disorders. People with PTSD have abnormalities in their hippocampus. Treatment of PTSD will increase the volume of the hippocampus and is linked to behavioral and mood improvements. Culture affects the way individuals show emotion. There are cultural display rules, which determine how and which emotions get expressed. Certain cultures do not allow the display of some emotions in public. Cultures with a lot of social cohesion will suppress emotions more. There are gender differences in emotions. Men and women differ in how emotions are regulated. On the other hand, the facial expressions used in different emotions are universal. There are seven universal emotions that have distinct impressions: surprise, happiness, fright, disgust, sadness, anger, and contempt. The facial feedback hypothesis indicates that facial expressions can influence emotions. It s possible that smiling can make a person happier. Body language and tone of voice also influence how individuals display emotions. People are very sensitive to a person s body language, even though it is not always in conscious awareness.

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KEY TAKEAWAYS •

Motivation is what determines a person’s behavior.

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There are certain drives a person can have that influence motivation and behavior.

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The drive for sex is universal. Sexual behavior can be along a spectrum of homosexuality to heterosexuality.

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Gender dysphoria involves distress over feeling a gender that is different from that which is assigned phenotypically.

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The drive to eat is based on different hormones that activate or suppress appetite.

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Obesity is much more common than the typical eating disorders a person thinks of.

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There are several eating disorders, including anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, and OSFED.

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Emotions are different from mood and are more intense and of shorter duration than mood.

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Emotions are based on physiological and psychological influences.

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QUIZ 1. What is considered an extrinsic factor that drives behavior rather than an intrinsic factor? a. Mastery b. Reward c. Autonomy d. Purpose Answer: b. Reward and things like punishment and compensation are all extrinsic factors, while the others are considered intrinsic factors. 2. What factor exceeds all others in driving a person’s motivation to do their work? a. Punishment b. Mastery c. Compensation d. Purpose Answer: c. When compensation enters the picture regarding work in particular, it tends to exceed all other factors and to diminish the intrinsic factors to the greatest degree, compared to things like punishment or reward. 3. According to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, what is the top of the hierarchy or the last need to be met? a. Self-esteem b. Self-actualization c. Security d. Social needs Answer: b. Self-actualization needs can only be met when other needs are met. This is why it is at the top of the hierarchy of needs according to Maslow.

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4. What part of the brain is most responsible for the human and animal sexual drive? a. Hypothalamus b. Thalamus c. Cerebellum d. Hippocampus Answer: a. The hypothalamus controls many drives and homeostatic mechanisms. It is largely responsible for animal and human sexual drives. 5. According to Masters and Johnson, when does an erection first begin in males in the sexual response cycle? a. Refractory Period b. Excitation c. Orgasm d. Plateau Answer: b. During excitation or arousal, the beginning of the penile erection occurs but it doesn t reach its maximal level until the plateau phase. 6. According to most of the research, what is the origin of homosexuality? a. Early childhood trauma b. Family of origin c. Early socialization d. Biological issues Answer: d. The majority of current work in homosexuality indicates that homosexuality is biologically-based and probably partially genetic.

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7. According to the set-point theory of body weight, what determines a person’s ideal weight? a. The amount of energy they expend b. Emotional influences c. Genetics d. The number of calories on average eaten per day Answer: c. Genetics determines what a person s ideal weight is rather than any environmental influence, according to the setpoint theory. 8. What body mass index would be considered normal? a. 16 b. 21 c. 28 d. 32 Answer: b. A normal body mass index is between 18.5 and 25. Values below this are underweight, while values above this are overweight, obese, or morbidly obese. 9. What would most likely define an emotion rather than a mood? a. Emotions are less intense than moods. b. Emotions are consciously perceived and moods are not. c. Emotions are more short-lived than mood. d. Emotions are not reactive to the environment. Answer: b. Each of these is a false statement, except that emotions are consciously perceived, while moods are not.

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10. What theory of emotions indicates that there is an appraisal of the stimulus that automatically happens before cognition to determine one’s emotion? a. Cognitive-mediational theory b. Schachter-Singer two-factor theory c. Cannon-Bard theory d. James-Lange theory Answer: a. According to the cognitive-mediational theory, there is appraisal of the stimulus that happens unconsciously in order to have the emotion before cognitive thinking occurs.

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CHAPTER TWELVE: SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY This chapter talks about issues related to social psychology. Social psychology is about those behaviors, thoughts, and feelings brought about by interactions with other people. There are certain things that occur mainly in the group environment, such as conformity, obedience, aggression, and prosocial behavior. This chapter is basically about groups and group dynamics as they exist only in a social environment.

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY DEFINED Social psychology looks at how people interact and how power is arranged in a group. According to social psychologists, people have behaviors, thoughts, and feelings that are influenced by the social situation they are in at the time. Cues are taken from other people as to how to behave in a social situation. There are several things looked at in social psychology, such as individual thoughts and emotions, social cognition, which is how people think about themselves in a social situation, and interpersonal issues, related to groups and dyads. These include prejudice, aggression, and discrimination. Behavior is influenced by a particular situation and by the person in the situation. Situationism is the theory that behavior is determined by the environment, while dispositionism is the theory that behavior is internal. Internal factors include temperament and personality traits. Most psychologists believe both views on behavior. In the US, most believe in dispositionism and the idea that a person controls their own behavior. They believe that, even in social situations, a person s behavior in that social setting is based on their own traits. This is called the fundamental attribution error. It means that behaviors are believed to be solely because of who a person is rather than the situation they are in. With this error, the current situation is overlooked and only internal factors are considered when looking at another s behavior. The fundamental attribution error is culture-specific. In individualistic cultures like the US, there is a high risk of making the fundamental attribution error. A person s disposition is believed to be the source of behavior. In collectivistic cultures, where 181

there is a focus on communal relationships, this error is less likely to be made. Asian, Latin American, and African cultures focus less on the individual and more on the situation. There are different areas of focus, depending on the culture type. In a collectivistic culture, people are relationship oriented, interdependent, and holistic. They have a situational perspective and focus on group autonomy. Individualistic cultures are achievement oriented and independent, with a focus on autonomy, a dispositional perspective, and an analytic thinking style. Sometimes, attributions are made of a person s behavior because not all the information about the situation are known. The assumption will be different, depending on how much information the person has about the situation. In US culture, the assumption tends to be dispositional. When it comes to our own behavior, though, we have more information about the situation and tend to be more situational about our own behavior. This phenomenon is called actor-observer bias. Another phenomenon is the self-serving bias. This involves attributing situational things to one s own failures and dispositional things to one s own successes. This is done to protect a person s self-esteem. Both of these issues relate to attribution, which is the belief about the cause of something. There are three dimensions to this: an external versus internal locus of control, stable versus unstable stability, and controllable versus uncontrollable controllability. Attributions can be stable, internal, and controllable in some cases, such as when successes happen. They can also be unstable, external, and uncontrollable in cases of failure. Victim blaming is common in Western cultures that have dispositional tendencies. Bad things are said to be the fault of the person experiencing them. This is called the justworld hypothesis, which means that people get the outcomes they deserve. Good people have good outcomes and bad people have bad outcomes. All of this allows people to feel that the world is somehow predictable. The biggest problem with this is the tendency toward victim-blaming. It is based on the idea that people get exactly what they deserve. Human behavior is largely determined by social roles. A person s social role is the behavior that is expected of them in certain settings. Everyone has different social roles

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they participate in, which are situational. Most people have certain expectations of behavior in certain social roles. Think of the roles of a teacher and student and determine what behaviors you would most likely expect from them. Social norms are related to social roles. Social norms are the behaviors that a group expects of itself. They describe what is acceptable and what isn t acceptable. Social norms differ according to the situation and are different, depending on where you are. Scripts are a person s individual knowledge of what to expect in a given situation and what order they are expected. These are different, depending on the circumstances and the culture.

ATTITUDES AND PERSUASION Social situations affect a person s attitudes and beliefs. An attitude is an evaluation of an idea, an object, or a person. Attitudes can be favorable or unfavorable. They involve feelings about a person, behaviors directed at something, and what is thought about something. You will have favorable or unfavorable thoughts, behaviors, and feelings toward something, which is your attitude toward it. The attitude is based on internal and external factors. Cognitive dissonance involves having a psychological discomfort that comes out of having more than one attitude, thought, or behavior about something. Having a positive self-esteem is a strong motivator of human behavior. Most people in the US have a positive self-esteem. Anytime a person has thoughts, feelings, or behaviors that differ from what they believe about themselves, this is cognitive dissonance. People will try to reduce this dissonance in one way or another. Methods to decrease cognitive dissonance include the following: •

Change the behavior that is dissonant.

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Rationalize and change the cognition. This can also involve denial.

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Add another thought or cognition to change the dissonance.

In the military, for example, the stress of boot camp can lead to cognitive dissonance. Surprisingly, in a situation where there is a difficult initiation into a group situation like 183

the military, it drives a person to like the group to a greater degree because they don t want to feel like they have wasted their time in joining and being initiated into the group. Persuasion happens to change a person s attitude about something based on communicating with them. Most persuasion comes from external forces. Advertising employs persuasion to a great degree in order to change people s opinion of something. According to the Yale Attitude Change Approach, the things that most change attitudes are the source of the information, the content of the message given, and the particular characteristics of the audience. If the speaker is credible and attractive, there is greater ability to persuade an audience. If the message is subtle, has more than one side, and is well-timed, there is more ability to persuade. In a debate, usually the first debater has a greater impact, unless there is a delay before the second person speaks, in which case the second person has the greater impact. People with moderate self-esteem and of less intelligence are more easily persuaded. There are two routes toward being able to persuade an audience. The first is the central route. This is driven by logic and data. The argument needs to be strong and the audience needs to be engaged. This kind of route leads to lasting change in attitudes. The peripheral route Is indirect and uses peripheral cues that associate positivity with the message given. The focus is not on the facts or on a product s quality. This is done when there are actors or athletes promoting a product. This yields a less permanent change in attitude. Peripheral route change does not require a motivated audience. There is a phenomenon called the foot in the door technique, which means that the persuader gets the person to agree to something small and then asks them for something much bigger. Those who agree to the small thing are more likely to later agree to a larger thing at a later time in order to demonstrate some type of consistency.

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CONFORMITY, OBEDIENCE, AND COMPLIANCE Conformity involves a change in a person s behavior or thinking in order to agree with a larger group, even if they really don t agree with them. Experiments have been done in which there are confederates who are in on the experiment and intentionally sway the subject s opinion about something. Many people are swayed by others and go along with the group. The influence that the majority has on the thoughts or behavior of a single person is called the Asch effect, which directly relates to conformity. According to the Asch effect, the size of the majority makes a difference up to a point. Very large groups do not necessarily have much greater of an impact as a moderately large group. If there is another dissenter, conformity drops to nearly zero percent. If the responses are made public, this increases the conformity rate. Compliance is basically a form of conformity. If a vote on something in a group is public, the chances that others will agree to the majority is greater. Compliance is when a person goes along with the request of the group, even if the person does not agree with the group s request. This is why government elections are kept completely private. There are two reasons why a person will conform in a group. In normative social influence, a person will conform in order to be accepted by the group and to fit in. With informational social influence, the conformity happens because of a belief that the group is somehow competent and has a handle on the correct information. Interestingly, in today s time, conformity is less important and less likely to occur than years ago. The person s gender, age, and socioeconomic background plays a role in who conforms and who doesn t. Obedience is different from conformity in that it involves a change in behavior as a result of the actions or wishes of an authority figure. Most people are obedient because they do not want the negative consequences that might occur if they do not comply. This is a natural phenomenon that can cause people to do things that they would not otherwise do. Groupthink is the power of a group to influence an individual. Groupthink involves the modification of the opinions of the people in the group so that everyone agrees with the

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consensus of the group. Groupthink can lead people to doing thing in a group setting they wouldn t do in private. It hinders the ability to have opposite trains of thought in a group setting, which can lead to a group making the wrong decision. Group polarization involves the strengthening of a group s attitude after a thorough discussion of the views among the group members. It happens in political conventions when a group strengthens its platform because the views have been discussed and agreed on by some of the members. Social facilitation involves a person doing better in a group setting than when doing a specific behavior by themselves. This is seen in sports and in the performing arts, when a person is more skilled when they have an audience. On the other hand, social loafing involves putting in less effort in a group than one would do alone. It happens when a person s individual performance can t be judged within the group. If the task is difficult or complex, the opposite occurs and people tend to be more motivated. Everyone works harder as a result.

DISCRIMINATION AND PREJUDICE Many wars and conflicts in the world come directly from prejudice and discrimination. These phenomena affect everyone, even in peacetime settings. Belonging to a group can lead to prejudice, which is a negative attitude toward someone because they are different or belong to a different group than you. It is common between different cultures. Prejudice often begins with stereotyping, or having a fixed belief about a person because of the group they belong in. It involves overgeneralizing information about a certain group. When prejudiced attitudes are acted upon, this leads to discrimination, which is having a negative action toward someone because of the group they belong to. Discrimination can happen to a certain gender, race, or age of persons in a group. The difference between prejudice and discrimination is that discrimination involves a behavior based on prejudice. Racism involves prejudice and discrimination based on race and prejudices toward them. Sexism is prejudice and discrimination against a certain gender, based primarily on stereotypes. Ageism involves judgment against someone

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based on age, usually older age. Homophobia is based on prejudice against people of a certain sexual orientation. Factors that reinforce stereotypes include self-fulfilling prophesies, in which you treat a certain person in a way that reinforces what you believe about them. Confirmation bias is the tendency to look for things that confirm what we already believe about a person. This also reinforces stereotypes and can lead to discrimination. There are in-groups, which is the group we see ourselves belonging to and an out-group, which is any other group. Socially speaking, there will always be an in-group bias, which is a preference for our own group. Scapegoating involves blaming the out-group when the in-group experiences some type of poor outcome or frustration.

SOCIAL AGGRESSION Aggression generally happens in a group setting and involves behavior intended to harm another. Hostile aggression is the type of aggression motivated specifically by anger and an intent to cause another person to have pain. Instrumental aggression involves that which is intended to achieve a certain goal rather than to cause pain. Aggression is largely evolutionary and is more common in men because of a need for dominance. Hostile aggression happens more often in men, while instrumental aggression involves mainly women. Frustration aggression theory is a theory that, when a person or persons cannot attain a goal, aggression can come out of that. Bullying is a modern type of aggression. This is repetitive negative treatment of another person, usually a child or adolescent. The key to bullying is that it is repetitive. It can be physical, verbal, or psychological in nature. Both boys and girls will bully but in different ways. Boys have more physical bullying, while girls use social forms of psychological aggression. Bullying can adversely affect the victim in many different ways. It can occur to children who are physically different, have differing ideas, or who are more emotionally reactive. Cyberbullying is a much more common type of bullying in today s time. The bystander effect happens when witnesses do not intervene on aggression or bullying. The diffusion of responsibility means that people in a group tend to think others in the group will bear the responsibility of helping the victim.

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PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOR Prosocial behavior is voluntary human behavior designed to help others. One concept you should know about is altruism, which is the desire to help others even if the costs are greater than the benefits. Some of this type of behavior was seen in people s actions on 9/11 in New York City. Empathy is the capacity to understand another person s emotional perspective. This often leads to prosocial behavior directed at them. No one knows if helping behaviors are self-serving and related to egoism or selfless and related to altruism. The biggest influence over who are your friends and loved ones is whether you have frequent contact with that person. This is because it is easier to have the opportunity to get to know the person. Similarity also plays a role. There is no evidence that opposites attract. Having social networks or relationships with another person because you are similar to them is called homophily. The disadvantage of homophily is a lack of exposure to human diversity. Once in a relationship, reciprocity is expected, which is give and take in a relationship. Self-disclosure in a relationship is the sharing of one s personal information with the other person. What kinds of things lead to attractiveness? It varies with different cultures but, universally, large eyes, narrow jawlines, high cheekbones, and a slender build will lead to attractiveness. Having a lower waist to hip ratio also leads to physical attractiveness in women. Men are more attractive who are tall, have a narrow waist, and have broad shoulders. Symmetry is more attractive than asymmetry. There are social traits that people find attractive, such as affection, warmth, and social skills in women and leadership, achievement, and job skills in men. People pick others based on similarity to their own attractiveness and desirability. Love has three components: commitment, passion, and intimacy. This is based on Robert Sternberg s triangular theory of love. Intimacy involves sharing personal details about yourself. Passion is physical, leading to romantic love. Commitment means to stand by the person through thick and thin. According to Sternberg s theory, there are seven kinds of love that range from empty love with just commitment, liking, which is

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just intimacy, and infatuation, which is just passion. All of these things together form consummate love. People stay in a relationship when the benefits outweigh the costs. According to social exchange theory, people keep score of these things throughout a relationship. The motivation is to maximize the different benefits and to minimize the perceived costs. Without an overall benefit, the relationship cannot survive.

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KEY TAKEAWAYS •

People tend to see their own behavior as situational and others’ behaviors as dispositional or trait-oriented.

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In a group situation, there is conformity, compliance, and obedience that leads to thoughts, behaviors, and attitudes that are more in line with another or with a group.

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Aggression happens in groups or dyads and involves things like hostile aggression, intentional aggression, bullying, and cyberbullying.

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Prejudice and discrimination happen toward people in groups that are different from yours.

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Prosocial behavior is positive behavior toward others due to selflessness or egoism, or a combination of these.

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There are some universal themes associated with attraction but it is also somewhat of a cultural thing.

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Love has components of intimacy, passion, and commitment. People remain in a relationship when the benefits outweigh the costs.

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QUIZ 1. According to dispositionism, what is the source of a person’s behavior? a. The environment b. Other people’s expectations c. Specific personality traits d. One’s upbringing Answer: c. Dispositionism relates to the idea that a person s behavior is based on certain personality traits rather than on external factors in the environment. 2. When a person has a fundamental attribution error, what is being overlooked at the time? a. The current situation b. A person’s personality traits c. A person’s physical state d. A person’s past experiences Answer: a. With the fundamental attribution error, the current situation is being overlooked and the person s personality traits are believed to be the cause of the person s behavior. 3. What is the major downside of the just-world hypothesis in social psychology? a. Victim-blaming b. The world is seen as unpredictable c. People have a situational perspective on outcomes d. It results in a low self-esteem Answer: a. There is victim blaming in cultures that believe in the justworld hypothesis because it is believed that people get what they deserve.

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4. A person’s evaluation of an object, person, or idea is called what? a. Persuasion b. Social norm c. Script d. Attitude Answer: d. An attitude is an evaluation of an object, person, or idea. It tends overall to be either positive or negative, depending on the person and what they are evaluating. 5. In social psychology, what is the Asch effect related to? a. Social conformity b. Social obedience c. Persuasion d. Compliance Answer: a. The Asch effect explains why individuals conform to a group, even when they don t personally agree with what the group believes. 6. What is most required to have obedience? a. A large number of people in a group b. A highly cohesive group c. A persuasive argument d. The presence of an authority figure Answer: d. Obedience requires an authority figure who makes the request of a person or group, who then complies because they want to avoid the consequences of disobeying.

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7. Blaming the out-group for problems and issues that happen to an in-group is called what? a. Scapegoating b. Confirmation bias c. Self-fulfilling prophesy d. Discrimination Answer: a. Scapegoating involves blaming the out-group for things that happen or do not happen to affect the in-group s success. 8. What is it called when aggression is tied to the need to harm someone out of anger toward them? a. Bystander effect b. Hostile aggression c. Cyberbullying d. Instrumental aggression Answer: b. Hostile aggression is direct aggression that comes out of anger and the desire to hurt someone or to cause them pain. 9. What is not true of attraction? a. People form relationships with the most attractive person they encounter. b. There are differences in what’s attractive in men and what’s attractive in women. c. Physical attractiveness can be culturally-related. d. There are physical and social aspects to attraction. Answer: a. Each of these statements is true except that people form relationships with people they feel are about their same level of attractiveness.

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10. When a couple has intimacy, passion, and commitment, what is this called? a. Infatuation b. Liking c. Consummate love d. Empty love Answer: c. Love has three components, passion, intimacy, and commitment. There are seven different types of love based on different combinations of these things. Consummate love has each of the components of love.

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CHAPTER THIRTEEN: STRESS AND THE PURSUIT OF HAPPINESS The topics in this chapter include stress from a psychological viewpoint and the pursuit of happiness. Stress comes in many forms; there can be relatively positive stressors and negative stressors. People regulate stress in relatively predictable ways, which are covered in the chapter. Negative stress can lead to a variety of disease states. The pursuit of happiness is an uplifting aspect of psychology, which is also covered as part of this chapter.

STRESS DEFINED Stress as a term first began in the 1930s but it wasn t popularized until the 1970s. It is used today to describe a wide array of unpleasant feelings, even though it is hard to define precisely. Some researchers believe that stress is some type of demanding or threatening situation. In that sense, stress is a stimulus. On the other hand, people vary in their recognition of and reaction toward stress. Other researchers believe that stress is instead the physiological response of the body toward a stimulus. This means that stress can be positive or negative. Neither of these definitions of stress is complete, however. Stress can be the perception and response to overwhelming or threatening situations. There is primary appraisal of a stressor, which is judgment about how harmful a stressor is. Secondary appraisal involves the judgment of the options available to the person about what to do regarding the stressor. Threats are less dangerous if you believe you can do something about them. Secondary appraisals then depend on one s self-efficacy. A state of stress happens when an event is perceived as harmful and the event s demands are greater than the resources available to deal with it. There is a kind of stress that can be positive or motivating. This is called eustress, which means good stress”. There are positive feelings and better performance because of this stress. In general,

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increased eustress will cause a peak in performance up to a point. If stress exceeds this level, this is called distress, which leads to tiredness and a decline in performance. Stress is not only everywhere but its level has been increasing. Events become stressful when you feel like you can t carry the load or handle it. What is defined as stress will differ from person to person. Stress leads to many different physiological responses, such as GI problems, headaches, or increased heart rate. There can be cognitive effects, like poor concentration, and behavior effects, like substance abuse or other behaviors. The study of health psychology includes the issues related to health and stress. Women have more stress subjectively than men. Unemployed people and those who are poor and less educated have more stress. Retired people have the least amount of stress. Stress is higher in people who are younger. Studies have demonstrated an increased level of stress in the past several decades. Walter Cannon was the one of the first to study stress and, in particular, the physiological responses people have toward stress. He was the first to describe the sympathetic fight or flight response. This is based on the levels of epinephrine and norepinephrine released by the adrenal gland. As you remember, this response shuts down the GI tract, dilates the pupils, increases the heart rate, and respiratory rate and causes sweating. Figure 23 shows the fight or flight response:

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Figure 23.

Hans Selye also contributed to the study of stress. He noticed that extreme and prolonged negative stress caused stomach ulceration, adrenal enlargement, and shrinkage of the thymus and lymph nodes. This he described as the general adaptation syndrome, which is the body s nonspecific response to prolonged stress. There will be an alarm reaction, followed by a stage of resistance, followed by an exhaustion stage. The alarm reaction is basically the same as the fight or flight response. The next stage is the stage of resistance, in which there is adaptation to the stress. Finally, there is the state of exhaustion, when adaptation decreases. There can be permanent damage to the body and possible death. There is psychological and physiological exhaustion. Stress depends on the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and the sympathetic nervous system. Both of these systems work together in response to stress. The sympathetic 197

nervous system is faster than the HPA axis. When stress occurs, the hypothalamus secretes CRF, which is corticotropin-releasing factor, which causes the pituitary gland to release ACTH, which is adrenocorticotropic hormone. This leads to the adrenal release of cortisol, which helps initially but later weakens the immune system. These stress responses will be favorable in the beginning but will ultimately have negative consequences if the stress is prolonged. High cortisol levels can weaken the immune system, lead to depression, and increase the risk of infectious diseases. People with extreme stress can have major depressive disorder and PTSD. There is an increased risk of heart disease, musculoskeletal diseases, endocrine disorders, metabolic disorders, and nervous system diseases.

STRESSORS There are different things that qualify as stressors. Stressors can be chronic and extend over a prolonged period of time; they can also be acute but will have effects that last for a period of time, such as an acute injury that has long-term consequences. Stressors can be major or can be minor but persistent, such as dealing with traffic. Traumatic events are usually major stressors, such as those that threaten life or serious injury. It can be a single event or multiple life-threatening events that occur over a period of time. Traumatic events tend to happen more to men, non-white individuals, and people of a lower socioeconomic status. Traumatic events will lead to PTSD or posttraumatic stress disorder. Significant life changes can be stressful, such as moving, divorce, marriage, or death of a loved one. There is a definite link between life changes and significant illness, even if the life changes are positive ones. Holmes and Rahe developed the Social Readjustment Rating Scale or SRRS, which looks at 43 different life events that result in the greatest need for personal readjustment. Positive and negative changes are described and these tend to be cumulative over time. There are certain life-change units, called LCUs. The highest LCU happens with the death of a spouse, with divorce being the second highest life change. The scale ranks the LCUs a person has experienced over the prior 12 months.

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Anytime there is an accumulation of stressors over one to two years, there can be a wide range of physical and psychological disorders coming out of that. Sometimes, the physical symptoms are greater on the specific days of the stressor. The SRRS seems to be valid across different ages and cultures but has been criticized sometimes for being vague. It also places equal outcomes for both positive and negative stressors, even though other studies show that negative stressors have worse outcomes than positive stressors. Finally, it doesn t account for the different appraisals a person might have to a particular stressor. Daily hassles can also be stressors. These are things that everyone deals with as part of their life and workplace. These can build one on top of another so that it can lead to symptoms not unlike those of a major stressor. Studies have shown that daily stressors can be worse with regard to mental and physical health than major life changes. People can even be stressed about ongoing social media related hassles that affect them regularly. Other stressors in life can be difficult, unsafe, or demanding work lives. Some jobs are naturally more stressful, such as police officers, firefighters, the military, and noisy jobs. People who have to alternate from the day shift to the night shift will have an increased level of stress in their lives. Things that predict work stress include having a heavy workload and having lack of control on the job. These lead to job strain as a major stressor. Job strain can lead to cardiovascular disease, weight changes, and depression. Some people can develop job burnout which is related to chronic job strain. It leads to three separate phenomena. The first is a sense of exhaustion from feeling like there is nothing more you can do. The second is depersonalization, which is detachment from the person you are serving. The third is a decrease in the sense of personal accomplishment in one s job. Job burnout is most commonly seen in people who have human service jobs. Personal relationships can also be stressful. These are largely negative things associated with a close relationship and involve uncomfortable conflicts, lack of emotional support, and sometimes a lack of reciprocity. Having problems of these kinds in a relationship can lead to an increase in heart disease as well as other diseases.

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STRESS AND DISEASE There are several kinds of psychophysiological diseases, which are diseases that are highly related to stress. These do not necessarily have to be caused by stress but they are definitely exacerbated by stress. Common disorders related to stress are hypertension, heart disease, irritable bowel syndrome, asthma, back pain, tension headaches, and a variety of skin diseases. There are certain psychological states and personalities that are more likely to be associated with these types of disorders. In fact, psychoanalysts have related specific diseases to certain unconscious conflicts but, other than hypertension related to anger, none of these has been borne out by research. State of minds that are related to major illnesses are anger, depression, and anxiety. Depression is a major risk factor for most of the significant physical illnesses. Neuroticism is a risk factor for several physical diseases. The immune system depends on a healthy psychological state. We need the immune system to fight off the different toxins and pathogens that cause disease. A person can be affected by an autoimmune disease, in which the person has an error in their immune system so that it attacks the body s own tissues. There are more than a hundred autoimmune diseases, including lupus, thyroid disease, and rheumatoid arthritis. The immune system can also be suppressed. This is called immunosuppression and can lead to a number of infectious diseases, including HIV disease and other infectious diseases. The study of the immune system and psychology is called psychoneuroimmunology. The immune system can be conditioned experimentally to react to stress. There are many other links to the immune system and psychological diseases. Stress alone increases the risk for developing even minor infectious diseases. Heart disease is one of several cardiovascular diseases that can be affected by stress because of the natural responsiveness of the cardiovascular system to stressful situations. Heart attacks are one major problem associated with chronic stress. People who do not have a heart attack can have angina, which is a squeezing type of chest pain and other symptoms associated with stress or exercise. Hypertension is a major risk

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factor for the development of heart disease. Other risk factors include poor diet, tobacco use, alcohol use, and a sedentary lifestyle. Research has been done on people with type A or type B personality styles. Type A people are more rushed and tend to be workaholics, while type B people are more laidback and relaxed. Heart disease, it turns out is, seven times greater in incidence among people who have a type A personality style. More recent research has indicated that there are certain components of the type A personality that trigger heart disease. The most specific component is anger and hostility, namely suppressed hostility. Besides anger and hostility, other things that can trigger heart disease include depression and negative affectivity. People with negative affectivity have a variety of distressful emotional states, such as guilt, fear, and disgust. People with depression of long-lasting duration have an increased risk of death due to heart disease. In addition, having heart disease is linked to the development of depression. Asthma is linked to stress. Asthma involves constriction of the bronchial tree with shortness of breath and wheezing, cough, and chest tightness. Asthma is often due to allergies, smoking, airway infections, exercise, and exposure to cold air. It appears that there are psychological factors playing a role in the exacerbation or worsening of asthma. Anxiety and high emotional states seem to most trigger asthma. Exposure to stress alone will trigger asthma. Stressful experiences and times of interpersonal conflict will also lead to the development of an asthma attack. Tension headaches happen in the head and neck region. These are different from migraines, which are usually on one side of the head and are associated with nausea and difficulty with noise and light. Things that most contribute to tension headaches are eye strain, poor posture, stress, meal deprivation, and sleep deprivation. Stress alone contributes to a lower tolerance for pain, which can manifest itself as a tension headache. i

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REGULATING STRESS There are two types of coping strategies. One of these is problem-focused coping, which attempts to handle the problem itself in order to cope. It basically involves problemsolving. Emotion-focused coping involves trying to change the negative emotions associated with stress. Strategies involve minimizing and distancing oneself from the problem. Emotion-focused coping involves reappraisal of the situation. Problemfocused coping is more likely to occur if the stressor is felt to be controllable, while emotion-focused coping involves stressors that feel out of one s hands to control. Most people desire to have predicable events and to be able to affect the outcome of things. Perceived control is the belief one has about having influence over the outcome of issues that come up in a person s life. Having perceived control is associated with decreased reaction to stressors and with better emotional and physical health. Failure of perceived control is called learned helplessness. Social support is one way of coping with stressors. Social support can involve a wide variety of things, including emotional, social, financial, and comfort-related support. Social support is linked to better survival rates and decreased mortality from health problems. People who are isolated have up to three times increased risk of death. Poor social support is linked to an increased risk of death from heart disease. Social support will increase the effectiveness of the immune system and will reduce a person s blood pressure. A person can learn to handle stress through using stress reduction techniques. One of the best techniques for stress is exercise, which benefits physical and psychological health. People who are fit recover from stress more quickly and easily compared to less fit individuals. Exercise diminishes the responsiveness of the HPA axis to stress. It also decreases signs of aging. Other stress reduction techniques include biofeedback and meditation. Relaxation through meditation involves finding a quiet environment, saying some sort of mantra, closing the eyes, and focusing on pleasant thoughts. This reduces sympathetic arousal.

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Biofeedback uses machines to measure muscular and autonomic activity in order to have control over the stress responses.

HAPPINESS Happiness is difficult to define. It can be looked at in many different ways. Some people see happiness in a religious light, while others see happiness as a sense of contentment and satisfaction with life. Still others view happiness as having all of the different things one needs to be comfortable in life. Each of these definitions touches on a dimension of happiness. There has been suggested that there are three major elements that define happiness. These include the good life, the pleasant life, and the meaningful life. The good life means having the means to be enriched in life. The pleasant life involves one s surroundings and relationships. The meaningful life involves having a sense of fulfillment in ways that benefit the world around us. Together, these things involve what s called a full life. Happiness is considered a long-term state of being rather than having episodes of a positive mood. Most people are generally happy and have more positive feelings than negative feelings. On a scale of one to ten, most people rate themselves as about 5 on a happiness scale, with people in certain parts of the world doing better than others. Some research indicates that happiness levels have diminished in recent years. It helps to understand exactly what factors contribute to having happiness. Age contribute to happiness, with older people being happier than younger people. There are no gender differences in being happy. Social relationships and family are highly correlated with happiness so that people who are divorced or single feel themselves to be less happy. A country whose people are wealthier is one that has more happiness but, over a certain income, there is no increase in happiness. People who are better educated with jobs that are meaningful tend to be happier but intelligence by itself is not linked to happiness. Being religious increases one s happiness, even in poorer living environments. Being well thought of in one s culture is

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also linked to happiness. Parenthood and physical attractiveness are not correlated with being happy. People in general are poor predictors of future happiness. Most people overpredict their level of happiness in most situations, predicting they will be happy if certain things would take place in their life, such as winning the lottery, when this just doesn t happen. Some people also think that severe injuries or the loss of a loved one would lead to permanent unhappiness, when this too doesn t occur. Some things lead to transient happiness but then we become adapted to them and we are less happy. Such adaptation doesn t necessarily mean that events have no impact on long-term happiness. The concept of positive psychology is only a couple of decades old but it has been proposed as a field of study in order to look at the science of happiness. It looks more on people s strengths and on what leads to happiness, rather than on people s problems, faults, and mental illnesses. Things that are being studied include empathy, altruism, forgiveness, compassion, and creativity. Research has also been done on the issue of positive affect, which is a way of looking at things with a positive spin on it. Having a positive affect helps to decrease depression, increase social connectedness, and improve longevity. A positive affect is somewhat protective against having heart disease. Another predictor of good health is being optimistic about things. Positive affect and optimism are not the same thing. Positive affect deals with feelings and optimism looks at the future outcomes.

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KEY TAKEAWAYS •

Stress depends on certain events in one’s life and on a person’s appraisal of the event.

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There are certain things that are universally stressful, leading to a stress response in most people.

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There are many diseases that are either caused by or made worse by psychological difficulties.

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Stress reduction involves using techniques that reduce the overall perception of stress.

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Happiness is surprisingly associated with certain things and is not related to other things, like physical attractiveness, intelligence, and parenthood.

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The study of positive psychology focuses on people’s strengths and resiliency rather than problems and disease states.

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QUIZ 1. What is it called when faced with a stressor and you judge what your options are to deal with it? a. Primary appraisal b. Stimulus-based stress c. Secondary appraisal d. Response-based stress Answer: c. Secondary appraisal of a stressor is based on self-efficacy and involves the person judging what their options are to deal with a specific stressor. 2. What is it called when it is believed that stress is mostly physiological and based on the person’s reaction to a stressor? a. Primary appraisal b. Stimulus-based stress c. Secondary appraisal d. Response-based stress Answer: d. With response-based stress, most of the stress is a physiological response, which will vary from person to person. The stressor may be experienced to a greater degree in some people and not in other people. 3. What is not part of the natural stress response? a. Increased heart rate b. Increased respirations c. Decreased GI motility d. Constricted pupils Answer: d. Each of these is a part of the natural stress response, which is based on the activation of the sympathetic nervous system, except that the pupils will dilate rather than constrict.

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4. What is the last stage of the generalized stress response? a. Fight or flight b. Exhaustion c. Resistance d. Alarm reaction Answer: b. In the generalized stress response, there is an alarm reaction, which is basically the same as the fight or flight response, then the stage of resistance, and then exhaustion, in which fainting or death can occur. 5. What change in life leads to the greatest degree of personal life adjustment? a. Divorce b. Surgery c. Job loss d. Death of a spouse Answer: d. While each of these things requires an adjustment, the death of a spouse requires the greatest degree of personal life adjustment, followed by divorce. 6. What is not a particular criticism of the SRRS scale, which measures the impact of stressors? a. It is too vague. b. It does not apply to all cultures. c. It does not take the person’s appraisals into account. d. It plays equal emphasis on negative and positive stressors. Answer: b. Each of these is a criticism of the SRRS, except that it does in fact apply to all ages and cultures.

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7. What underlying emotional state is most associated with high blood pressure? a. Sadness b. Shame c. Guilt d. Anger Answer: d. The available research shows that there is a strong connection between the development of high blood pressure and underlying anger. 8. What psychological condition is most associated with the development of physical diseases? a. Anxiety disorders b. Depression c. Schizophrenia d. Obsessive-compulsive disorder Answer: b. Depression has a major link to most of the major physical diseases. 9. Which psychological state is most associated with the development of an asthma attack? a. Depressed mood b. Excitement c. Anger d. Anxiety Answer: d. Asthma is most closely associated with anxiety and with other negative highly emotional states.

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10. What is most associated with problem-focused coping strategies? a. Altering the situation b. Minimizing the problem c. Distancing oneself from the problem d. Reappraisal of the situation Answer: a. Problem-solving coping involves altering the situation itself while the other strategies involve emotion-focused coping.

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CHAPTER FOURTEEN: PSYCHOPATHOLOGY The focus of this chapter is clinical psychology or the study of psychopathology. There are many different types of mental disorders in the realm of psychology, which are briefly covered in the chapter. These include mood disorders, schizophrenia, posttraumatic stress disorder, dissociative disorders, and somatic disorders. The different psychological disorders that primarily affect children are also discussed in the chapter. The chapter also explains how the different psychological disorders are diagnosed in clinical psychology.

DIAGNOSIS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS There is a great deal of controversy surrounding the diagnosis of psychiatric disorders. Everyone is different and yet, people with similar symptoms will share the same diagnosis. It is for this reason that categories of psychiatric illnesses must be defined and a diagnosis needs to be made. This allows consistency in research and relatively standardized plans of treatment. It also allows psychiatrists and psychologists to talk to one another with a common language regarding their patients. The major way that psychological disorders are classified is the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders or the DSM-5. There have been several iterations of the manual, which was first published in 1952 by the US Army. It is not without controversy because it simply lists different features of a diagnosis that must be matched up to make the diagnosis. There are several categories of psychiatric disorders, such as depressive disorders and psychological disorders. According to compiled statistics, the disorder with the highest incidence is major depressive disorder, followed by alcohol abuse, specific phobia, social anxiety disorder, drug abuse, and PTSD. The DSM-5 will also give you an idea of what s called comorbidity, or the co-occurrence of two disorders at the same time. For example, alcohol and drug abuse has a high degree of comorbidity with other disorders.

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Over the years, the DSM has naturally changed. Homosexuality is no longer a disorder, for example. The number of described disorders has greatly increased, from 130 disorders in the original manual to 237 disorders in the current manual. Categories of diagnoses have also been changed over time. The downside of the DSM-5 is that it turns human conditions into pathologies so that many people will have some type of pathology according to the manual. The International Classification of Diseases or the ICD is another classification manual developed by the World Health Organization or WHO. It was developed after World War II and has been revised. There are similarities and differences between the manual and the DSM-5. The current goal is to somehow coordinate the two manuals. The ICD is used more for clinical diagnosis, while the DSM is used more for research purposes.

ANXIETY DISORDERS Anxiety is not the same thing as fear. Anxiety does not necessarily have an imminent threat, while fear has some time of obvious and imminent threat. Fear is an instant reaction, while anxiety tends to be pervasive. Both involve avoidance, apprehension, and cautiousness. Anxiety does not have to be a bad thing; it can be motivating and can precipitate changes in behavior. The person with an anxiety disorder has an experience that is disruptive to them, is persistent, and is out of proportion to the real threat. Anxiety disorders are common and are frequently comorbid with each other. A type of anxiety disorder is specific phobia. This is the distressing and persistent fear of a certain thing, such as flying, the dentist, or certain animals. The person knows it is an irrational fear but they cannot help it. There is a great desire to avoid the source of the fear. In order to be a specific phobia, the symptoms need to disrupt the person s life. Certain types of therapy can be used to decrease the impact of the symptoms on the person s life. Agoraphobia is a separately listed phobia, which involves having a fear of places where the person cannot find a way to escape. Panic disorder is also a different disorder. Phobias in general come out of learning theories, such as vicarious learning, classical

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conditioning, and verbal transmission or getting information that leads to fear. Most people develop a phobia of things that are not actually dangerous to them. Social anxiety disorder or social phobia involves extreme or persistent fears of social situations because of a fear of being judged negatively by others. It affects 12 percent of all people in the US at some point in life. The individual fears doing something embarrassing or humiliating; they fear saying or doing something that would lead to rejection. Public speaking and meeting with strangers are common associated fears, along with eating in public and using public bathrooms. The disorder is distressing and affects everyday life. Self-medication in order to avoid the feelings is very common. Panic disorder comes on suddenly and unexpectedly. A common feature of panic disorder is the presence of extreme physical symptoms such that the person feels they are dying. Common symptoms include dizziness, shortness of breath, chest pain, palpitations, nausea, and abdominal distress. There can also be derealization, which is a dreamlike state, and depersonalization, which is the feeling of not being real. The symptoms must be recurrent and disruptive to the person s life. There can be predictable or unpredictable triggers. A panic attack alone does not meet the criteria for panic disorder. Panic disorder is largely inherited but with unknown genes involved. It is believed to be related to a dysfunction of the locus coeruleus in the brain. This part of the brain secretes norepinephrine, which is linked to fear and anxiety. There is also classical conditioning involved in getting a panic attack. The person with the disorder may have an excessive response to certain bodily sensations compared to the average person. Normal bodily reactions are interpreted anxiously and catastrophically. Generalized anxiety disorder involves a continual state of worry about many different things. The worry is uncontrollable and generalized to many different life situations. These people worry diffusely and have these symptoms for longer than six months, resulting in easy fatiguability, exhaustion, sleep problems, and muscle tension. It affects almost six percent of people and is twice as likely to be seen in women. There is an increased risk of other anxiety disorders, mood disorders, and heart disease. The disorder is modestly inherited and is believed to stem from childhood trauma.

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OBSESSIVE-COMPULSIVE DISORDERS Obsessive-compulsive disorder or OCD is actually a group of disorders that involve intrusive and negative thoughts that lead to certain repetitive behaviors. While these types of things are common, having the disorder involves a disruption of one s life because of the disorder. Besides OCD itself, hoarding disorder and body dysmorphic disorder are under this umbrella of disorders. People who have OCD have thoughts or obsessions that are unwanted and intrusive. The behaviors that come out of this are called compulsions. Compulsions can be behaviors like hand washing or repetitive checking of things. The thoughts themselves are very distressing and often involve things like symmetry, germs, and doubts about something. Some patients will have an overlap in these obsessions. Compulsions are designed to reduce the obsessions but are not generally realistic or pleasurable. Body dysmorphic disorder involves an obsession about a perceived flaw in the body that other people might not even notice. The patient feels ugly, deformed, or unattractive. Most of the fixations are on the face, the skin, or the hair. This leads to constant looking in the mirror and sometimes to extremes of cosmetic surgery. The incidence of the disorder is 2.4 percent and slightly favors women over men. Hoarding disorder is different but related to OCD. The person cannot part with their personal possessions so that they live in extremely cluttered environments, often with the inability to use parts of their home. They ultimately believe that someday they will have use for the items or that the items have sentimental value. OCD is moderately genetic and heritable, being much more common among relatives of those who have it. There are several genes that have been proposed to be causative of the disorder, which appears to affect the orbitofrontal cortex of the brain. Hoarding disorder is related to the anterior cingulate cortex and body dysmorphic disorder is related to the prefrontal cortex. All of these areas of the brain are within the frontal lobe. There might be some classical conditioning also involved.

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PTSD PTSD or posttraumatic stress disorder is a reaction to traumatic or stressful events, which can include child abuse, natural disasters, combat, sexual assault, or terrorist attacks. It was once an anxiety disorder but now has its own category. The person must feel they have the threat of injury, death, or sexual violence. This is the only DSM diagnosis that specifically lists an underlying cause. Common symptoms include avoidance, problems with arousal, sleep deficits, flashbacks, irritability, detachment, and an excessive startle response. The incidence is higher in people who experience trauma as part of their jobs. The greater the trauma severity, subsequent life stressors, and lack of social support indicate a person who will more likely develop PTSD. It is more likely to be seen when the trauma happens because of the acts of another person. Females, poorer individuals, child abuse, family history, and low intelligence also predict PTSD incidence. There is a possible genetic link to developing the disorder as well. Social support after trauma is protective against getting PTSD.

DISSOCIATIVE DISORDERS Dissociative disorders involve being split off from one s sense of self, which is a psychological phenomenon. There are three types of dissociative disorders. One of these is dissociative amnesia, which involves an inability to remember personal information, usually after a major traumatic experience. There can be dissociative fugue, in which the person leaves their home and becomes confused about who they are, sometimes developing a new identity. This is actually a rare disorder. Depersonalization/derealization disorder involves feeling unlike themselves or unfamiliar with themselves, which is depersonalization, or feeling in a dreamlike state, which is derealization. The person often feels robotic and feels like they cannot have control over their own actions. Some feel out of body experiences or feel as if they are in a dream. This is more common than other dissociative disorders.

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Dissociative identity disorder involves having at least two separate personalities that are distinct from one another. It used to be called multiple personality disorder. There can be gaps in memory, the hearing of voices, and lack of control of one s actions. While the disorder can be controversial, it does exist and is highly distressing to the individual having it. It is linked to high levels of intelligence and to recurrent childhood trauma.

MOOD DISORDERS Mood disorders are disturbances in emotions and include depression and bipolar disorder. Most people have some type of inciting event but also have the preexisting disposition toward the disorders. The two main categories include depressive disorders and bipolar disorders. People with major depressive disorder have psychological symptoms of depressed mood, hopelessness, emptiness, and sadness, along with a lack of enjoyment in life and physical symptoms. There can many possible symptoms, of which five must be seen for a minimum of two weeks. Physical symptoms include sleep disturbances, weight changes, fatigue, agitation, concentration difficulties, and suicidal ideation. The symptoms are episodic but recurrent over one s lifetime. The disorder is seen in 17 percent of people in their lifetime. It is more common in women and more common in certain parts of the world. Other risk factors include being unemployed, low socio economic status, having poor social contacts and living in an urban environment. Comorbid diseases include substance abuse and anxiety. Depressive disorders come in several types. These are considered subtypes of major depression. Those with a seasonal pattern have depression mostly in the wintertime when light levels are low. Those with peripartum depression have what s called postpartum depression, with themes related to their baby and the birth of their baby. Persistent depressive disorder is also called dysthymia. It involves about six months or more of depressive symptoms that tend not to be as severe as major depression. Bipolar disorder is a different disorder from major depression. It must include at least one episode of mania, which is a period of persistent elevated or irritable mood, lasting at least one week in duration. Patients with mania get less sleep, talk more, and have 215

difficulty with spending or other risky behaviors. Flight of ideas is common, which is abruptly switching from one topic to another. Some will alternate with depressive periods of time, while others will have a combination of normal and elevated mood states. Bipolar disorder is not as common as major depressive disorder and has a younger age at onset. Anxiety and substance abuse are often comorbid conditions. There is a higher risk of suicidality in those with bipolar disorder versus those with depression and half the patients do not require treatment. Mood disorders in general have a biological basis, with bipolar disorder having the highest risk of being inherited. Patients will have some type of neuro chemical imbalance in serotonin or norepinephrine neurotransmitter systems. This explains why drugs designed to balance these two neurotransmitters are helpful in regulating particularly the depressive symptoms. Lithium is often used for mania because it blocks norepinephrine activity in the nerve synapses. Stress and upbringing also are risk factors for depression. Patients with depression have higher than normal cortisol levels, particularly if they have traumatic events early in childhood. No one knows if the increased cortisol loves are the cause or effect of having depression. Stressful life events can also easily predict the onset of depression. Thus, the current model of depression is that depression has both genetic and environmental causes. There are cognitive theories of depression that indicate the probability of negative thinking being related to the development of depression. Some believe that having a sense of hopelessness will also trigger depression. Depressed people have an increased risk of rumination, in which they chronically focus on distress and low mood states. Depression and bipolar disorder can lead to extremes in emotional pain and the onset of suicidal behaviors. There are biological and psychological predispositions toward suicidality; a person also needs to have the means to commit suicide. Lack of social support, decreased problem-solving skills, and poor coping also contribute to suicide. Mood disorders in general increase the risk of suicide more than other disorders.

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Suicide risk factors include the time of year, with springtime being the peak time for this behavior. Other risk factors include substance abuse, having a prior suicide attempt, having lethal means to die, and social withdrawal. The suicide of a close relative or friend also predicts an increased risk of suicide. Low levels of serotonin are seen in people who attempt suicide.

SCHIZOPHRENIA Schizophrenia is one of the different psychotic disorders that involve thought disturbances, delusions of several types, and problems with behavior and emotions. It is often diagnosed in young adulthood. Social and functional abilities are impaired throughout the lifetime of the person who has the disorder. Many people are hospitalized on a regular basis. Common symptoms of schizophrenia include hallucinations, which are abnormalities in perception, delusions, which are abnormalities of thinking and belief systems, and difficulty with normal speech and motor behaviors. The majority of hallucinations are auditory in nature, with the person hearing voices. Less commonly, the hallucinations are visual or olfactory. Delusions are basically false beliefs, such as paranoid thinking, ideas of reference, and delusions of grandeur. Other symptoms of schizophrenia include disorganized thinking, which involves disjointed and sometimes incoherent thoughts, disorganized motor behaviors, which are movements that are child-like or purposeless, and speech disturbances. These are the positive symptoms of schizophrenia. There are also negative symptoms, which involve decreased facial expression, depression, anhedonia or an inability to feel pleasure, and a flat affect. Schizophrenia is largely inherited. Children of schizophrenic patients have six times the risk of also developing schizophrenia. There also is a less prominent impact of environment on the development of schizophrenia. Having a genetic basis for the disease plus a disorganized childhood both predict the development of the disorder. Biologically, there appears to be an imbalance in the dopamine neurotransmitter system in psychosis, particularly as it applies to the limbic system. Serotonin also plays a role 217

but it appears to be less than is seen with dopamine. Brain imaging of schizophrenia show enlargement of the ventricles, which are the fluid-filled spaces in the skull. Individuals who are schizophrenic have an increased risk of marijuana use, with the proposal that marijuana use predicts the development of schizophrenia.

SOMATIC SYMPTOM DISORDER Somatic symptom disorder or SSD used to be called somatization disorder. It involves having a psychological disorder affecting the body. The patient will be distressed by these symptoms and many will be anxious. There can be pain, GI symptoms, neurological symptoms, or sexual problems that are unexplainable biologically. Some somatic disorders include illness anxiety disorder, which is the belief that one has a serious illness when they do not, conversion disorder, which involves having some type of unexplainable neurological symptom, and somatic disorders involving specific symptoms, such as the false belief that a woman is pregnant. People with somatic disorders often have frequent medical tests and procedures that do not help. They are difficult to treat because they often fail to connect their psychological state to their physical symptoms, believing only that there is something physically wrong with them. There are some patients who get better with cognitive behavioral therapy that help to reduce unrealistic beliefs, distorted thinking, and health-seeking behaviors.

CHILDHOOD PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS There are some psychological disorders that occur mainly in children but can persist through adulthood. They are referred to as neurodevelopmental disorders because they involve some type of neurological symptoms in the developing years. Two of these disorders are attention deficit hyperactivity disorder or ADHD and autism. Children with ADHD usually are hyperactive and frequently have behavioral problems. There is a short attention span that leads to learning difficulties and difficulty concentrating. About five percent of children have this, predominately boys. There is an

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increased likelihood of having antisocial behavior and increased aggression that can persist past childhood. Untreated adults have worse earning potential and lower socioeconomic status. There is a higher than normal risk of both relationship difficulties, social difficulties, and substance abuse. ADHD is highly heritable, with a high twin to twin concordance rate. There are genetic defects that have been proposed as causative in ADHD, with the dopamine neurotransmitter being implicated. There are medications used in the treatment of the disorder that lead to an increase in dopamine and treat the symptoms. Abnormalities in the frontal lobe have been found on brain imaging studies. Another disorder seen in childhood is autism spectrum disorder. There are problems with social interactions, communication difficulties, and the tendency toward repetitive interest or behaviors. These happen early in the child s life and persist through adulthood. It can be so severe that the child will not speak at all or will simply echo the speech of others. Behaviors include stereotypical movements, such as head-banging and rocking. Changes in the child s routine can cause temper tantrums. Interests in specific thing are common. The child may do poorly on intelligence tests but will know a great many things about certain interests. A few children will have true intellectual disabilities but, because it is hard to test these children, this may not be a common issue. Autism is believed to be genetic but the exact genes associated with the disorder are not known.

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KEY TAKEAWAYS •

The most common psychological disorder is major depression.

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Many psychological disorders are comorbid with one another.

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Anxiety disorders can be focused on a particular thing or can be generalized.

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PTSD and dissociative disorders are related to trauma. PTSD can involve any trauma, while dissociative disorders involve childhood trauma specifically.

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Mood disorders can involve subtypes of major depression or bipolar disorder.

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There are positive and negative symptoms linked to schizophrenia, which affect thoughts, behaviors, and emotions.

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Childhood neurodevelopmental disorders are largely biological in origin; they include ADHD and autism spectrum disorder.

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QUIZ 1. What disorder has the greatest lifetime prevalence rate? a. PTSD b. Schizophrenia c. Social phobia d. Major depressive disorder Answer: d. Major depressive disorder has the greatest lifetime prevalence, being present to a high degree in both genders. This is somewhat closely followed by alcohol abuse disorder. 2. What is not a characteristic of an anxiety disorder? a. There is no actual threat. b. The anxiety is persistent. c. The anxiety is disruptive to the patient’s life. d. The anxiety is greater than expected for the situation. Answer: a. The statements all describe an anxiety disorder, except that there certainly can be an actual threat, but the level of symptoms is out of proportion to the threat that might exist. 3. What anxiety disorder most involves having a fear of being embarrassed or humiliated? a. Social anxiety disorder b. Panic disorder c. Generalized anxiety disorder d. Agoraphobia Answer: a. The individual with social anxiety disorder has a fear of social situations out of an underlying fear of being embarrassed or humiliated by others.

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4. In obsessive-compulsive disorder, what is a compulsion? a. An unwanted thought b. An intrusive feeling about something c. Anxiety over a certain situation d. A repetitive behavior Answer: d. In OCD, an obsession is an unwanted and intrusive thought, while a compulsion is the repetitive behavior that comes out of an obsession. 5. What is most protective against developing PTSD? a. Social support b. Having integrated memories of the event c. Having certain genetic traits d. Being more intelligent Answer: a. The presence of social support is most protective against the development of PTSD, which has been seen in people who return from wartime and those who ve been sexually assaulted. 6. What dissociative experience involves moving from one’s home after being confused by one’s identity, leading sometimes to adopting a new identity? a. Dissociative identity disorder b. Dissociative fugue c. Derealization d. Depersonalization Answer: b. With dissociative fugue, the person leaves their home and, out of confusion over who they are, will sometimes develop a new identity altogether.

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7. Which depressive state is a separate disease in its own right rather than a subtype of major depression? a. Seasonal affective disorder b. Bipolar disorder c. Dysthymia d. Postpartum depression Answer: b. Among these disorders, only bipolar disorder is its own disease state that is not considered a subtype of major depression. 8. Which mood disorder is most likely to have an inherited component with a high risk of passing it onto one’s relatives? a. Dysthymia b. Major depressive disorder c. Bipolar disorder d. Seasonal affective disorder Answer: c. Bipolar disorder is most heritable and is readily passed through genetic means, although other depressive disorders have some heritability. 9. What type of hallucinations are seen with the patient who has schizophrenia? a. Visual b. Auditory c. Tactile d. Olfactory Answer: b. Most hallucinations in schizophrenia are auditory hallucinations, with the rest being visual or olfactory.

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10. What is considered a negative symptom of schizophrenia rather than a positive symptom? a. Flat affect b. Delusions c. Hallucinations d. Disorganized thinking Answer: a. The positive symptoms are relatively easy to diagnose, while the negative symptoms, such as flat affect and anhedonia, are less easy to see as associated with this disorder.

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CHAPTER FIFTEEN: PSYCHOTHERAPY AND MENTAL HEALTH TREATMENT This chapter is about the treatment of mental health disorders. Mental health treatment has been around for centuries but is currently more humane that it originally was. There are several approaches to treating mental illness and several specific psychological treatments, which are covered in the chapter. There are many types of providers that help people with mental health problems, which are described as part of the chapter.

HISTORY OF MENTAL HEALTH TREATMENT About 20 percent of people today have a mental health problem every year, with about 13 percent receiving some type of mental health treatment. This includes inpatient treatment, outpatient treatment, and the use of some type of prescription medication for psychological diseases. Children are also treated for mental health diseases, with more children being treated for conduct disorders and ADHD than other disorders. Treatment of mental disorders has existed since medieval times but these types of treatment were rarely helpful. In the beginning, it was believed that demonic possession or some type of witchcraft was the origin of mental problems. Priests were used in things like exorcism to help reduce the incidence of mental health behaviors. Less commonly, methods like imprisonment, execution, and trephination, or the release of vapors” from the brain through drilling a hole in the skull, were used. In the 1400s through 1600s, it was believed that people with mental health disorders had made a pact with the devil so these people were deemed witches and were burned at the stake. It is believed that many thousands of people were accused of witchcraft. By the 1700s, asylums were built to house people with psychological disorders. Treatment was felt to be secondary to keeping them out of society. The patients were often chained to their beds and were treated quite badly. A few patients in France were

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treated more humanely and some were allowed to eventually leave the asylum. Mental asylums in the late 1800s were developed in the US, which were more humane. Electroshock therapy was first used in the middle of the 1900s and was initially not very humane. People were not anesthetized and the treatment was often painful. Electroshock therapy remains in use today but it is done with anesthesia and better safety measures. Antipsychotic drugs were first used in the 1950s and were often very helpful. Asylums were closed in the 1960s and patients were treated in a community setting. Nowadays, many people are treated at community mental health centers. Most people are seen as outpatients. The downside is that some patients with severe psychotic disorders do not seek this type of treatment and are left homeless with a lack of mental health services. In fact, the incidence of mental illness among the homeless is about 25 percent. There is also a high percentage of people in prison who have mental health disorders. State psychiatric hospitals do exist but focus on short-term care of patients who have psychiatric crises. Other patients are treated because they are required to do so by the criminal justice system. While treatment exists for mental disorders, it is not always accessible. Some patients, particularly those who live in rural or poverty-stricken areas, cannot find quality treatment. In some places, mental health treatment is not acceptable or not accessible to people who need it. There has been legislation in recent years to improve the accessibility and insurability for mental health problems.

TYPES OF THERAPY The two main types of treatment for mental health disorders are psychotherapy and biomedical therapy. Psychotherapy involves several treatments used to help individuals with emotional issues. Biomedical treatment involves the use of medications or procedures used to manage psychiatric issues from a more biological perspective. There are several types of psychotherapy you should know about. These include the following:

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Psychodynamic psychotherapy—this is talk therapy that deals with past childhood issues and how they affect a person’s behavior.

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Play therapy—this is used in children using toys and interactions to deal with a child’s issues.

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Behavior therapy—this uses things like relaxation and learning theory to change a person’ behaviors.

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Cognitive therapy—this is therapy designed at changing patterns of thinking that lead to a person’s distress.

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Cognitive-behavioral therapy—this combines behavior modification and thought processes to change self-defeating behaviors.

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Humanistic therapy—this look at conscious thoughts in order to improve selfawareness and personal acceptance.

Psychoanalysis is not commonly used but was primarily used in the early part of the twentieth century. It was based on Freud s work and covers issues like repressed memories and unconscious impulses. Dream interpretation is a big part of this type of therapy as well as free association, which was said to uncover one s deepest thoughts and emotions. This treatment is based on the patient-therapist relationship and involves transference, which is the putting of emotions and connections onto the therapist. The psychodynamic approach is loosely based on psychoanalysis. Play therapy, as mentioned, is usually done with children to help them deal with their psychological issues. Children use play in order to work out their fantasies, hopes, and traumatic experiences in a setting that doesn t involve dreams or talk therapy approaches. Some children are allowed to play freely, while others are directed or structured to talk about certain problems in their life. In behavior therapy, the focus is on things like phobias and other behaviors that need to be changed because they are dysfunctional. Both operant conditioning and classical conditioning are used specifically to alter behavior. Problems such as bedwetting can be improved through the use of the different learning theory approaches.

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Other treatments include aversive conditioning, which pairs a negative stimulus with a specific behavior in order to change or stop the behavior. This is the type of treatment sometimes used for things like nail biting, smoking, and alcohol abuse. People learn to associate the aversive stimulus with the behavior and the behavior stops, theoretically. Exposure therapy is used to treat phobias and anxieties. The patient is gradually exposed to approximations of what they fear until they become conditioned to the stimulus they ultimately fear. Things that are particularly improved with exposure therapy are specific phobias. The type of exposure therapy used today is systematic desensitization, which decreases anxiety related to an exposure to something that is feared. Virtual reality techniques can be used in many of these cases. A token economy is used in some psychiatric hospitals in order to improve behaviors. This makes use of operant conditioning or rewards and punishments in order to reinforce desired responses. Points or tokens are given that can be exchanged for things the patient desires. Cognitive therapy focuses on the patient s thoughts that ultimately lead to distressful feelings. Patients are exposed to their own cognitive distortions so they can talk through them and reduce distress. Irrational beliefs are challenged and replaced by rational thoughts and logical thinking. It was first developed by Dr. Aaron Beck in the 1960s. Cognitive-behavioral therapy also focuses on present-day issues. The patient learns how thoughts affect behaviors. This is a popular form of therapy that is used for many different things. It has been found to be effective in treating psychological disorders, such as bipolar disorder, PTSD, depression, and eating disorders. It has also been used to decrease suicidality by changing patterns of thinking. Humanistic therapy helps people achieve their goals and maximal potential. It increases self-awareness and sense of personal acceptance. This is called client-centered therapy, because the therapist does not give advice but helps the patient identify feelings and conflicts. The patient takes control over their own life and learns to overcome challenges. The therapist does not judge the person but listens actively with unconditional but positive regard for the patient.

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Biomedical therapy is mostly based on the use of medications, called psychotropic drugs. These are described by psychiatrists who monitor the effectiveness of the medications. Some of the different medications include antidepressants, mood stabilizers, and antipsychotics. Anxious patients are often treated with anxiolytic drugs. Mood stabilizers are used for bipolar disorder and stimulants are used for ADHD and sometimes for severe depression. Electroconvulsive or ECT therapy is what electroshock therapy is now called. The purpose is to cause a generalized seizure in order to reduce symptoms of severe unrelenting depression. The patient experiences some degree of memory loss as part of the side effects, but the majority of patients do improve with this treatment. A form of this is called transcranial magnetic stimulation; it uses a strong magnetic field to reduce depressive symptoms over a period of time. Patients can be involved in individual therapy with a single clinician. The therapy extends for a variable period of time, in which the patient is treated once a week or twice a month. Group therapy involves people working together in a group setting with the main goal of decreasing isolation and increasing social support. There is less confidentiality in this setting and a risk of personality clashes. Some groups are more educational, while others are more therapeutic in nature. Couples therapy involves two people who are in an intimate relationship. They work with a therapist in order to better deal with interpersonal conflict. Family therapy works with families using a family systems approach. It is used when one family member has a problem that affects the whole family or when there are family relationship problems to work out.

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TREATING SUBSTANCE ABUSE Substance abuse treatment is done to help a person deal with a substance-based addiction. Often the treatment lasts an extended period of time because the person who has the problem is dealing with a chronic disease they cannot overcome themselves. The cost of this type of treatment is less than incarcerating the person and the cost of managing the problem without treating the addiction itself. People often need to be in treatment for a minimum of three months for the therapy to be effective because there are many dimensions associated with addiction, including social, behavioral, and psychological dimensions. Group therapy is most often used for the treatment of addiction. Family therapy is also sometimes employed. Many patients with addiction have some type of comorbid disorder, which can complicate their treatment. Patients with comorbid diseases are often difficult to manage and do not do as well as those who do not have a comorbid disease. Often these patients self-medicate their psychological disorder with substances so the treatment of both problems is necessary.

TYPES OF THERAPY PROVIDERS There are many different providers of mental health services. They all can help with many of the problems related to psychological issues. A psychologist has a PhD in psychology and many are trained in various forms of psychotherapy. They do not provide medications and some oversee other providers who do the actual therapy. Psychiatrists have a medical doctorate degree and can prescribe medications. Some of them do psychotherapy but most are primarily responsible for the medical management of psychiatric patients. Psychoanalysts use therapeutic techniques that are based on Freudian psychology. Psychiatric nurses generally work in mental health hospitals and give patients their psychiatric medications. Psychotherapists do not have to be psychologists but are involved in a variety of individual and group therapies. Mental health counselors have

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different levels of education but often work with problems such as stress, addiction, and marriage issues. Marriage and family therapists also work with couples as well as families who have various problems. Addiction counselors deal specifically with addictive behaviors. Other people involved in treating mental health issues are pastoral counselors or religious counselors who focus on spiritual issues. Art therapists use artistic expression to help patients with many kinds of mental health problems. Social workers can do therapy or can work on the social and occupational issues a patient is dealing with as part of their mental illness.

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KEY TAKEAWAYS •

For most of history, the treatment of mental health problems has not been very humane.

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There are a variety of therapies used individually or in groups. Some are thought and emotion-based, while others focus on specific behaviors.

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Addiction therapy is often done in a group setting; addictions are treated like chronic disorders with multiple dimensions.

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There are many different types of therapists who can work with patients who have many different types of mental health problems.

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QUIZ 1. What was originally the most common treatment for mental disorders in the medieval times? a. Exorcism b. Trephination c. Execution d. Imprisonment Answer: a. During these times, the origin of mental disorders was believed to be some type of demonic possession, so exorcism was the most commonly used treatment. 2. When were psychotropic drugs first used to treat patients with mental health issues? a. 1930s b. 1950s c. 1970s d. 1980s Answer: b. The first psychotropic drugs were used in the US starting in the 1950s. These were found to be very helpful, particularly for psychotic disorders. 3. What type of therapy involves dealing with past childhood issues? a. Cognitive-behavioral therapy b. Play therapy c. Humanistic therapy d. Psychodynamic therapy Answer: d. Psychodynamic therapy is a type of treatment that uses talk therapy to deal with past childhood issues and how they impact recent behavior.

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4. Which type of psychotherapy involves increasing self-awareness and positive thinking? a. Cognitive-behavioral therapy b. Behavioral therapy c. Humanistic therapy d. Cognitive therapy Answer: c. Humanistic therapy involves increasing a person s selfawareness and enhancing positive thinking. 5. What modern approach to therapy is most based on Freud’s psychoanalytic theories? a. Psychodynamic therapy b. Cognitive-behavioral therapy c. Play therapy d. Humanistic therapy Answer: a. Psychodynamic therapy is largely based on the work of Sigmund Freud and on his psychoanalytic theories. 6. Which type of therapy most makes use of operant and classical conditioning techniques? a. Psychodynamic therapy b. Humanistic therapy c. Behavioral therapy d. Psychoanalysis Answer: c. Behavioral therapy deals, of course, with behaviors and uses learning theories to change those behaviors that are dysfunctional.

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7. Which psychological disorder or issue is most improved through the use of exposure therapy? a. Bedwetting b. Smoking c. Generalized anxiety disorder d. Specific phobia Answer: d. The use of exposure therapy is most helpful in the treatment of specific phobias, in which the person is gradually exposed to approximations of what they ultimately fear the most. 8. What type of therapy or treatment makes the most use of operant conditioning? a. Exposure therapy b. Token economy c. Systematic desensitization d. Virtual reality therapy Answer: b. In a token economy, the patient is rewarded with tokens for good behavior that can be later traded for things that the patient desires. It makes use of operant conditioning. 9. Which type of therapy is considered also to be client-centered therapy? a. Humanistic therapy b. Exposure therapy c. Psychodynamic therapy d. Cognitive-behavioral therapy Answer: a. With humanistic therapy, the person is encouraged to work out problems using their own personal strengths. It is considered to be client-centered therapy.

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10. For which type of mental health issue would a mood stabilizer most likely be used? a. Major depression b. Schizophrenia c. ADHD d. Bipolar disorder Answer: d. Mood stabilizers are mainly used to treat bipolar disorder because they stabilize people who have problems with an elevated mood.

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SUMMARY This course has been designed to introduce the listener to the basis of college psychology. As you have learned, psychology is the study of the mind. You studied elements of psychology that have biological origins, such as learning, memory, sensation, and perception. You also learned about psychological wellness, which is important to overall health. In the course, we talked about stress and illness, states of consciousness, and personality. The various mental illnesses were important to learn about when you study psychology as well as the ways many of these disorders are treated by psychologists and other mental health professionals. Now that you have finished the course, you should feel competent in your understanding of psychology as it is presented in a typical college psychology course. Chapter one in the course looked at psychology as a health discipline. In the chapter, you learned about what psychology means as a discipline, the history of psychology throughout the world, and the practice of modern psychology. Psychology has many applications, which were covered in the chapter. Whether you have been studying psychology to become a psychologist or using psychology as part of your career, this chapter helped you understand both the different careers in psychology and the various fields of applied psychology. The focus of chapter two is psychological research. All good research starts with an understanding of the scientific method, which is the foundation of all research processes. There are different types of psychological research studies that differ in their design and interpretation, as well as ways to interpret the findings determined to be fact in the different psychological experiments. There are certain ethical principles that must be considered when performing research on human subjects, which have been covered as part of this chapter. Chapter three in the course studied the subject of biology in the study of psychology. Genetics are an important part of the biology of a human being, so this was covered in the chapter. The cells and structures of the nervous system need to be understood

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before you can understand the interplay between biology and psychological phenomena, so this was discussed. An important aspect of this are the neurotransmitters that have different effects on the nervous system. All of these things are put together in the study of biopsychology, which is a major research field in psychology. Chapter four was about lifespan development. There are several researchers who have developed theories on lifespan development, which were explained in the chapter. The different stages of development, from the prenatal stage to stages of advanced age, were covered in this chapter. Finally, issues related to death and dying as well as the different stages of grief were explained as part of the chapter. The focus of chapter five in the course was consciousness, which is the awareness of one s internal and external environment. There are different states of consciousness experienced every day, the most common of which is the sleep state. There are different stages of sleep that can be identified and a range of sleep-related disorders that can affect a person. Altered states of consciousness have been covered in this chapter, including ways of inducing an altered state, such as meditation and hypnosis. Chapter six looked at the principles of sensation and perception. Sensation can involve several things because there are multiple sensory organs in the body. The typical sensory functions covered in this chapter were vision, hearing, olfaction, taste, and several different tactile perceptions. Each of these depends on certain receptors that pick up details from the environment. Perception is related to sensation. Because Gestalt psychology is based on perception, this was discussed in this chapter as well. The topic of chapter seven in the course was learning theories. Learning involves the acquisition of new information but it can also involve acquiring behaviors, values, preferences, or skills. There is learning throughout life and different ways in which learning can occur. Some of the most historically significant learning strategies are classical conditioning and operant conditioning, although there are other ways of learning new things, such as through operational learning or modeling, which was also covered in this chapter. Chapter eight was about intelligence, thinking, and cognition. Part of the understanding of intelligence involves the understanding of things like creativity and

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language. Where intelligence comes from and how it is tested for were also covered in this chapter. Everyone, regardless of their intelligence, has the ability to problem solve so this was included in the chapter. The focus of chapter nine in the course was personality. Personality involves the traits a person has that are consistent over time. There are multiple theories on what personality is all about and theories on personality development, which were discussed in the chapter. Specific personality tests can be used to evaluate a person s personality, which you have learned about. Finally, there are personality disorders that were covered in the chapter, which represent deviations in what can be called a normal personality. Chapter ten in the course introduced the subject of memory. Memory is not just a single phenomenon as there are several types of memory. Memory is largely biological, with certain parts of the brain contributing to the experience of memory. Some people have memory deficits, which have been discussed in the chapter. In order to combat memory impairment, many individuals will use specific memory enhancement techniques in order to improve memory. Chapter eleven was about emotion and motivation. Motivation explains why a person does what they do. There are specific motivations that are universal to all humans. These include the drives to eat and the drives related to sexuality and sex. The chapter talked about the different disorders related to eating and sexuality, such as eating disorders and gender identity disorder. Finally, the basis of emotions was covered in the chapter. Chapter twelve in the course talked about issues related to social psychology. Social psychology is about those behaviors, thoughts, and feeling brought about by interactions with other people. There are certain things that occur mainly in the group environment, such as conformity, obedience, aggression, and prosocial behavior. This chapter was basically about groups and group dynamics as they exist only in a social environment. The topics in chapter thirteen included stress from a psychological viewpoint and the pursuit of happiness. Stress comes in many forms; there can be relatively positive stressors and negative stressors. People regulate stress in relatively predictable ways,

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which have been covered in the chapter. Negative stress can lead to a variety of disease states. The pursuit of happiness is an uplifting aspect of psychology, which was also covered as part of this chapter. The focus of chapter fourteen in the course was clinical psychology or the study of psychopathology. There are many different types of mental disorders in the realm of psychology, which were briefly covered in the chapter. These include mood disorders, schizophrenia, post-traumatic stress disorder, dissociative disorders, and somatic disorders. The different psychological disorders that primarily affect children were also discussed in the chapter. The chapter also explained how the different psychological disorders are diagnosed in clinical psychology. Chapter fifteen was about the treatment of mental health disorders. Mental health treatment has been around for centuries but is currently more humane that it originally was. There are several approaches to treating mental illness and several specific psychological treatments, which were covered in the chapter. There are many types of providers that help people with mental health problems, which were described as part of the chapter.

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COURSE QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 1. What is the first step in using the scientific method in psychology? a. Observation b. Forming a hypothesis c. Experimentation d. Determining a rule or theorem Answer: b. Before any determination can be made in the scientific method, the research psychologist must form a hypothesis that is then tested through observation or experimentation. 2. What field of applied psychology looks at things like intelligence testing and assessing personality? a. Psychometrics b. Geropsychology c. Comparative psychology d. Biopsychology Answer: a. Psychometrics refers to psychological testing and looks at ways of assessing a person s intelligence and the different facets of their personality. 3. What field of applied psychology looks at the physical processes of the brain and how these affect cognition, emotion, and behavior? a. Educational psychology b. Geropsychology c. Comparative psychology d. Biopsychology Answer: d. The field of biopsychology focuses on the biological facets of the brain and how biology influences one s thinking, emotions, and behaviors. 241

4. What branch of psychology is concerned with issues of punishment and reward? a. Cognitive psychology b. Neuropsychology c. Biopsychology d. Behaviorism Answer: d. Behaviorism or behavioral psychology is involved with the modeling of behavior patterns through the use of punishment and rewards. 5. What branch of psychology is concerned with perception and problemsolving? a. Cognitive psychology b. Neuropsychology c. Biopsychology d. Behaviorism Answer: a. Cognitive psychology concerns itself with things like thinking, perception, learning, and problem-solving. It makes use of experimental research used to understand how people process things in their environment. 6. What country is the origin of psychology, dating back to the 1870s? a. France b. Germany c. England d. United States Answer: b. The field of modern psychology originated in Germany with the establishment of the first experimental research facilities dedicated to the study of psychological processes.

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7. Who first developed an experimental research laboratory in the 1870s that was designed to study psychology? a. Wilhelm Wundt b. BF Skinner c. Gustav Fechner d. Johann Herbart Answer: a. Wilhelm Wundt was a German researcher who opened the first research laboratory to study psychological phenomena. 8. What was least studied by Sigmund Freud in his work on psychoanalysis? a. Dream interpretation b. Cognitive processes c. Hypnosis d. Free association Answer: b. Sigmund Freud studied hypnosis, free association, and dream interpretation as they relate to uncovering unconscious processes of the mind. 9. What did Freud believe was the main origin of psychological problems? a. Child abuse b. Intellectual defects c. Sexual development d. Social functioning Answer: c. Freud believed that a great many psychological problems come from issues related to the child s sexual development.

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10. Who was the first American psychologist? a. Erik Erickson b. BF Skinner c. William James d. Charles Peirce Answer: c. William James was the first American psychologist. He was interested in Darwinian evolution and in the relationship between mental processes and fitting in with the environment. 11. Which psychologist was not associated with the study of behaviorism? a. Ivan Pavlov b. Abraham Maslow c. BF Skinner d. James Watson Answer: b. Abraham Maslow was not a behaviorist; however, the other three researchers focused their work largely on the issues of behaviorism. 12. What is the basest level of Maslow’s hierarchy of human needs? a. Security b. Love and belonging c. Esteem d. Physiological needs Answer: d. According to the hierarchy, the most basic of human needs are the physiological needs, which include warmth, food, and shelter.

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13. What type of degree is the minimum a psychologist needs to have in order to treat patients? a. Bachelor of Science b. Master’s Degree c. Doctor of Philosophy degree d. Post-doctoral fellowship Answer: b. In general, a Master s degree is the minimum degree a person must have in order to treat patients as a psychologist. This is generally a six-year program of study. 14. What degree in psychology is most designed for the individual who wants to specialize in clinical psychology? a. BS b. MA c. PhD d. PsyD Answer: d. The PsyD degree is the doctor of psychology degree that is specifically designed for the professional who wants to practice in the field of clinical psychology. 15. What least defines a double-blind experiment? a. It involves asking an open-ended question. b. It makes use of a placebo. c. The researcher does not know what the participants are receiving. d. The participant does not know what they are receiving. Answer: a. The double-blind experiment makes use of a placebo and neither the participant nor the researcher knows what the participants are receiving. It avoids certain biases in the experimentation process.

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16. What is least likely to be an experiment you should be skeptical of? a. One that has not been supported by other researchers. b. One that has a small sample size. c. One that involves a wide cross-section of participants. d. One where the researcher has a conflict of interest. Answer: c. There are many reasons why you should be skeptical of a given experiment or claim. You should look at each of these things but an experiment that has a wide cross-section of participants may actually be one you can trust if none of the other factors listed are the case. 17. What is true of inductive reasoning? a. It goes from a generalization to something more specific. b. The hypothesis is what is generated first. c. It is the basis of all scientific experiments. d. It starts with a specific observation and then generalizes. Answer: d. The beginning of inductive reasoning is the observation of something from which a general statement is made. 18. Which type of variable in an experiment will most likely interfere with the interpretation of the data in a psychological experiment? a. Independent variable b. Confounding variable c. Extraneous variable d. Dependent variable Answer: b. A confounding variable is one that is extraneous and not taken into account when the experiment is performed. For this reason, it is often something that interferes with the interpretation of the data.

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19. What type of study was done by Sigmund Freud when he came up with his scientific theories? a. Surveys b. Observational studies c. Case studies d. Experimental research study Answer: c. Freud often looked at case studies in order to generate his scientific theories. It is for this reason that some of his conclusions have been criticized because it did not involve large numbers of subjects. 20. What is the type of research study that involves participants that are basically the same age? a. Survey study b. Case study c. Longitudinal study d. Cohort study Answer: d. A cohort study is one in which the study participants are generally the same age. This means that the age variable is a constant and unchanging part of the research project. 21. What type of research study can identify the difference between cause and effect? a. Observational study b. Cohort study c. Experimental study d. Longitudinal study Answer: c. An experimental study is the only type of study that can actually determine the cause and effect between two different variables.

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22. What is the major downside of an observational study? a. It sometimes cannot generalize to larger groups of people. b. It cannot gather large amounts of data on a group. c. It does not work when studying rare characteristics of the group being studied. d. There is a great deal of selection bias. Answer: a. Because an observational study is done on smaller groups of people, some of whom have rare characteristics, the findings are not always generalized to larger groups of people. 23. What type of research study can be done anonymously with a large number of participants? a. Archival study b. Longitudinal study c. Survey d. Cohort study Answer: c. Surveys can be done anonymously to improve the validity of the data and they can be done on a large group of people. 24. What type of study looks at differences between individuals who are of different ages at the time of the study? a. Cross-sectional study b. Cohort study c. Longitudinal study d. Observational study Answer: a. Cross-sectional studies are so named because they involve looking at differences between people who are of different ages while the study is going on.

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25. What type of research study is best for looking at the various risk factors for diseases? a. Cross-sectional study b. Cohort study c. Longitudinal study d. Observational study Answer: c. In a longitudinal study, individuals can be assessed over time for the various risk factors for diseases. Sometimes the risk factors lead to disease but it takes time for the disease to manifest itself. 26. What does the concept of parsimony mean to the researcher in experimental psychology? a. There must always be cause and effect in an experiment. b. The simplest explanation for something is preferred. c. The data must be something that is observable. d. The theories must be testable. Answer: b. With parsimony in experimental studies, the simplest explanation for what is observed is preferred over a complex explanation. 27. In a research study, data needs to be measured. Which type of measurement uses numbering of things just to label them so that the number itself doesn’t mean anything? a. Interval measurement b. Ratio measurement c. Ordinal measurement d. Nominal measurement Answer: d. In nominal measurement, the numbers don t really mean anything but are instead used to label something. Letters or names can be used just as easily.

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28. What correlation coefficient in a research study indicates that there is no relationship between two variables? a. -1 b. 0 c. +1 d. +10 Answer: b. A zero correlation coefficient means that there is no relationship between two variables. The correlation coefficient goes from -1 to +1. 29. What type of relationship is believed to be true but is not supported by actual research studies? a. Illusory correlation b. Positive correlation c. Negative correlation d. Conformational bias Answer: a. An illusory correlation is something like believing the full moon causes abnormal behavior. It is a common belief that is not supported by actual data. 30. What is not necessary with regard to the data you collect in an experimental psychology experiment? a. Observability b. Measurability c. Present in all subjects d. Able to be quantified Answer: c. Each of these things must be a part of the data you collect as part of your experiment; however, it does not need to be present in all subjects.

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31. What is not a true statement about informed consent to do a study? a. There can be no deception in the consent form b. The participant must know their participation is always voluntary c. The study design must be explained in the form d. The risks of the participation should be explained Answer: a. Each of these is a true statement except that deception is allowed if complete truthfulness would alter the test results and the deception is not harmful to the participants. 32. What is a chromosome ultimately made of? a. Ribonucleic acid b. Protein c. Deoxyribonucleic acid d. Glycolipid Answer: c. The chromosome consists of different genes that are made from deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA, which forms the blueprint for the making of proteins that lead to different traits in a human, plant, or animal. 33. What is the sum total of an individual’s genetic characteristics called? a. Allele b. Genes c. Genotype d. Phenotype Answer: d. While the sum total of the individual s genes is called the genotype, the sum total of all of their genetic characteristics that can be seen or determined biochemically is called the phenotype.

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34. What term describes an allele that is not seen unless a person has both copies of the same allele? a. Recessive b. Dominant c. Heterozygous d. Homozygous Answer: a. A recessive allele is not dominant so it takes the presence of two recessive alleles for the trait to become evident in the individual. 35. What does a Punnett square reveal? a. The phenotype of the offspring b. The genotype of the offspring c. Both the phenotype and genotype of the offspring d. The presence of a lethal allele Answer: c. The Punnett square will tell the genotype and will predict the phenotype of the offspring of a certain match between parents with their own sets of genotypes and phenotypes. 36. What is true of fraternal twins? a. They come from different eggs and different sperm cells b. They come from the same egg but different sperm cells c. They come from different eggs but the same sperm cells d. They come from the same egg and the same sperm cell Answer: a. Fraternal twins come from different eggs and different sperm cells but are born at the same time. Genetically-speaking, however, they are no more related than two different siblings would be.

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37. What type of cell is not considered a glial cell? a. Oligodendrocyte b. Schwann cell c. Astrocyte d. Neuron Answer: d. Neurons are their own category of cell in the nervous system. They are separate from glial cells. Oligodendrocytes, Schwann cells, and astrocytes are considered glial cells. 38. What is more true of an axon than a dendrite? a. They receive the electrical impulse from another neuron. b. They are shorter. c. They are often myelinated. d. They are large in number. Answer: c. Each of these is more true of a dendrite than an axon, except for being myelinated, which is much more true of an axon. 39. The sum total of the connection between two neurons is called what? a. Synapse b. Terminal button c. Synaptic cleft d. Postsynaptic receptor Answer: a. Each of these represents a part of the synapse, which is defined as the sum total of the connection between two neurons or between a neuron and a muscle cell.

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40. What is essentially the same thing as an efferent nerve? a. Motor nerve b. Interneuron c. Sensory nerve d. Parasympathetic nerve Answer: a. A motor nerve is an efferent nerve because it sends a signal away from the central nervous system to the periphery of the body. This is in opposition to an afferent nerve, which is usually a sensory nerve. 41. What is the largest part of the brain? a. Cerebellum b. Thalamus c. Cerebrum d. Brainstem Answer: c. The cerebrum is the largest part of the brain. It is responsible for consciousness, memory, thinking, and problem solving. 42. What part of the brain is most associated with emotions? a. Hypothalamus b. Limbic system c. Cerebellum d. Pons Answer: b. The limbic system is most associated with the processing of emotions. There are several related structures that make up the limbic system.

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43. What is least likely to be associated with the frontal lobe? a. Motor control b. Speech production c. Higher-order reasoning d. Sensory input Answer: d. The frontal lobe deals with each of these things but does not handle sensory input. It also deals with the expression of emotions. 44. What is the major function of the occipital lobe of the brain? a. Hearing b. Sensation c. Vision d. Motor skills Answer: c. Vision is the major function of the occipital lobe of the brain, which contains the primary visual cortex. 45. What structure of the brain is most associated with memory and learning? a. Amygdala b. Pons c. Hypothalamus d. Hippocampus Answer: d. The hippocampus is the major structure of the forebrain that helps the individual learn and develop new memories.

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46. What is a major difference between neurotransmitters and hormones? a. Hormones are not chemical messengers and neurotransmitters are. b. Hormones act on distant target organs, which is not true of neurotransmitters. c. Neurotransmitters have receptors and hormones do not. d. The action of neurotransmitters is slower than that of hormones. Answer: b. A major difference between neurotransmitters and hormones is that hormones act on distant target organs, which is not true of chemical messengers. 47. Which endocrine gland is considered the master gland because it controls so many other endocrine glands and endocrine functions? a. Pituitary gland b. Thyroid gland c. Adrenal gland d. Pineal gland Answer: a. The pituitary gland is often referred to as the master gland because it makes a great many hormones that control several bodily functions and other endocrine glands. 48. Which neurotransmitter is most associated with muscle cell activation? a. Dopamine b. Acetylcholine c. Histamine d. GABA Answer: b. Acetylcholine is the major neurotransmitter involved in the activation of muscle cells. Diseases that affect acetylcholine or the acetylcholine receptors will cause profound muscle weakness.

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49. What is the first stage of Freud’s developmental stages? a. Anal b. Genital c. Latency d. Oral Answer: d. The first stage of Freud s psychosexual development is that of the oral stage. 50. In which psychosexual stage is there the Oedipus and Electra complex? a. Anal b. Genital c. Phallic d. Latency Answer: c. In the phallic stage, the boy can develop an Oedipus complex and the girl can develop an Electra complex. 51. When in Freud’s stages is their more self-pleasure and masturbation? a. Phallic b. Oral c. Anal d. Genital Answer: a. In the phallic stage, the focus is on masturbation and on self-pleasure rather than on sexual intercourse and on interactions with other sexual individuals.

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52. According to Erickson, when does an individual develop values and a sense of self? a. Infancy b. Preschool c. School age d. Adolescence Answer: d. In adolescence, the task is to develop a sense of self and to develop a value system. The adolescent must develop these things before true intimacy can begin. 53. At what stage of development is there the task of integrity versus despair? a. Adolescence b. Older adulthood c. Middle adulthood d. School age Answer: b. The older person will reflect on their lives with either a sense of accomplishment and pride or feelings of despair. The person should have accomplished things by this time in their life that they have developed some sort of pride in. 54. What is the main task performed in school age children? a. Industry versus inferiority b. Intimacy versus isolation c. Trust versus mistrust d. Autonomy versus shame and doubt Answer: a. In the school age child, there is a focus on industry versus inferiority. The child who is successful takes pride in their daily successes and avoids feeling inferior to others.

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55. What theory on development was the main theory espoused by Jean Piaget? a. Psychosocial theory b. Psychoanalytical theory c. Cognitive theory d. Psychosexual theory Answer: c. Jean Piaget worked on and studied the cognitive development of children rather than on the sexual or social development of children as they grow and develop. 56. In which of Piaget’s stages do children develop egocentrism? a. Sensorimotor b. Preoperational c. Formal operational d. Concrete operational Answer: b. In the preoperational stage, which is the preschool years, children have imaginative play but also have a great deal of egocentrism. 57. Which developmental theorist studied moral development? a. Freud b. Erickson c. Piaget d. Kohlberg Answer: d. Kohlberg took Piaget s theories and expanded them to include things like the moral development of a child over time.

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58. If a person has reached the highest level of moral reasoning, what is behavior driven by? a. Social acceptance b. Moral principles c. Avoidance of punishment d. The presence of rewards Answer: b. At the highest level of moral reasoning, individuals are driven by their own moral values and moral principles rather than on any of the other choices. 59. What happens in utero to end the germinal stage of development? a. Cells become fully specialized b. Limb buds form c. The zygote implants into the uterus d. Meiosis is completed Answer: c. The germinal stage of development is when the single-celled zygote increases its cell count through mitosis. The stage ends with the implantation of the zygote into the uterine lining. 60. What environmental factor is least likely to be a teratogen? a. Folic acid b. Tobacco smoke c. Alcohol d. Heroin Answer: a. Folic acid is a vitamin that can protect against neural tube defects. It is not a teratogen; however, the other choices are considered to be teratogens.

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61. At what age will most infants begin to take steps and walk? a. Six months b. Twelve months c. Fifteen months d. Eighteen months Answer: b. The average age at which an infant will walk on his own is about twelve months of age, although it can happen slightly earlier or slightly later than that. 62. When does a child first say words that have some type of meaning? a. 12 months b. 18 months c. 2 years d. 3 years Answer: a. The first words a child says are very simple and not always recognizable as the intended word but they begin to have meaning at around 12 months of age. 63. What type of attachment is seen most in abused children? a. Secure attachment b. Avoidant attachment c. Resistant attachment d. Disorganized attachment Answer: d. With abused children, there is disorganized attachment. They are dysregulated when the parent leaves the room but run from the parent when they return to the room.

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64. At what age does self-concept begin to develop? a. 6 months b. 18 months c. 5 years d. 12 years Answer: b. At 18 months, the self-concept starts to develop with the child seeing themselves separate from others. This will continue through adolescence. 65. What is generally the first stage in the grieving process? a. Bargaining b. Acceptance c. Anger d. Denial Answer: d. Denial is often the first thing that happens with grief. The person feels numb and often feels as though a mistake has been made. 66. How many hours of sleep are necessary at a minimum in order to avoid accruing a sleep debt? a. 5 hours b. 6 hours c. 7 hours d. 8 hours Answer: c. Sleep of less than seven hours a night on a chronic basis increases the probability of accrual of a sleep debt.

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67. According to Freud, which things related to consciousness will affect a person’s behavior? a. The conscious only b. The preconscious only c. The conscious and preconscious only d. The conscious, the preconscious, and the subconscious Answer: d. Even though things in the subconscious are not easily retrievable, they still can affect a person s behavior. 68. What is referred to by the concept of sleep rebound? a. The tendency to fall asleep faster after sleep deprivation b. The tendency to sleep longer after sleep deprivation c. The tendency to sleep more deeply after sleep deprivation d. The tendency to dream more after sleep deprivation Answer: a. Sleep rebound is the tendency to fall asleep faster after a period of sleep deprivation. 69. When are memories laid down to the greatest degree? a. In slow-wave sleep b. In REM sleep c. While resting before sleep d. In the morning after sleeping Answer: a. Memories are laid down the most during slow-wave sleep so that staying up cramming for a test may actually be counterproductive to the process.

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70. During which stage of sleep is a person most easily awakened? a. REM sleep b. Stage 1 sleep c. Stage 3 sleep d. Stage 4 sleep Answer: b. Stage 1 sleep is the transition between sleep and wakefulness. The person has an increased ability to be awakened during this phase of sleep. 71. Which stage of sleep is most associated with sleep spindles and K-complexes? a. REM sleep b. Stage 1 sleep c. Stage 2 sleep d. Stage 4 sleep Answer: c. The stage 2 sleep is a deeper stage of sleep than stage 1 sleep and is associated with the presence of sleep spindles and K-complexes on the EEG. 72. What problems can occur with lack of REM sleep? a. Mood disturbances b. Cognitive deficits c. Weight gain d. There are no downsides to lack of REM sleep Answer: d. There are no downsides to a lack of REM sleep and, in fact, there are some antidepressants that depress REM sleep and improve mood.

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73. What is lucid dreaming? a. Dreaming with a partial awareness of wakefulness b. Dreams that are really realistic c. Dreams where the person feels like they are falling d. The same thing as daydreams Answer: a. Lucid dreams are dreams that are associated with a partial wakefulness so that the person may have some control over the outcome of the dream. 74. What criterion indicates the presence of insomnia? a. An inability to sleep five nights a week for six months b. An inability to sleep 2 night a week for three months c. An inability to sleep 3 nights a week for one month d. An inability to sleep 1 night a week for three months Answer: c. The criterion for insomnia is the inability to sleep for 3 nights a week or more for a minimum of one month. 75. What sleep disorder is almost always seen in young children? a. Sleep terrors b. Restless leg syndrome c. Somnambulism d. Narcolepsy Answer: a. Sleep terrors are episodes of fear and panic during sleep that are not remembered by the individual. They almost always occur in young children and are eventually outgrown.

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76. What is the biggest physical risk to having sleep apnea? a. COPD b. Cardiovascular disease c. Diabetes d. Obesity Answer: b. People who have sleep apnea have a higher risk of developing cardiovascular disease. Obesity is related to having this but it is usually a preexisting condition. 77. What is the most common sleep disorder in humans? a. Sleep apnea b. Narcolepsy c. Insomnia d. Restless leg syndrome Answer: c. Up to half of all people will have insomnia at some point in their lives, making it the most common sleep disorder in humans. 78. For what medical purpose is meditation least likely to be helpful? a. Irritable bowel syndrome b. Cardiovascular disease c. Diabetes d. Insomnia Answer: c. Meditation is believed to help these diseases but it is not known to be helpful in the treatment of diabetes.

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79. What is it called when a person looks at an object as part of hypnosis? a. Suggestion b. Induction c. Ideomotor response d. Suggestibility Answer: b. Induction or hypnotic induction” is the fixation on an object or some other thing in order to create a hypnotic trance state. 80.What does the sensation called proprioception detect? a. Temperature b. Movement c. Body position d. Balance Answer: c. The sensation known as proprioception will detect body position in space so you can know where your body parts are located without having to look at them. 81. What does vestibular sense detect? a. Touch b. Movement c. Body position d. Balance Answer: d. Your vestibular sense is located deep within the ear and helps to detect balance. Without it, you can feel dizzy and might fall over.

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82. What is sensory adaptation? a. The ability to tune out unnecessary things in the environment. b. The ability to focus on things specifically and more clearly over time. c. The ability to focus on more than one thing in the environment. d. The ability to use past experiences to make sense of the sensations experienced. Answer: a. Sensory adaptation is the ability to tune out unnecessary things in the environment so that not all things that are actually sensed are things that are perceived. In some cases, it happens over a period of time when it is no longer necessary to focus on something. 83. What is the distance from the center of a wave to the top of the wave called? a. Amplitude b. Frequency c. Trough d. Wavelength Answer: a. The amplitude is the distance from the center of the wave to the top of the wave. Waves of a higher amplitude are considered more intense than waves of a lower amplitude. 84. What naturally increases as the wavelength of a wave decreases? a. Crest b. Trough c. Amplitude d. Frequency Answer: d. The frequency of a wave is inversely proportional to the wavelength so, as the wavelength decreases, the frequency increases.

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85. What aspect of a wave is measured in Hertz? a. Amplitude b. Propagation c. Frequency d. Wavelength Answer: c. The frequency of a wave is measured in hertz. All waves can be measured this way. 86. What structure of the eye is most responsible for having a clear focus of visual objects? a. Sclera b. Iris c. Lens d. Pupil Answer: c. The lens of the eye is most responsible for the ability to have clear focus, although the cornea also plays a smaller role in this. 87. What is the part of the eye that is also known as the “blind spot”? a. Fovea b. Optic chiasm c. Optic nerve d. Retina Answer: a. The fovea is also called the blind spot. There are no rods or cones there because the optic nerve exits the eye at this spot in the retina.

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88. Which part of the eye is most responsive to the perception of color? a. Optic nerve b. Cone c. Rod d. Optic chiasm Answer: b. Cones are photoreceptor cells that are most responsive to the perception of color. They operate best in bright light, which explains why color is best perceived under bright light conditions. 89. What is the connecting membrane between the middle ear and the inner ear called? a. Semicircular canal b. Oval window c. Tympanic membrane d. Basilar membrane Answer: b. The oval window is the membrane that the stapes rests on. It represents the dividing point between the middle ear and the inner ear. 90. What is least likely to be a cause of conductive hearing loss? a. Toxins b. Loud noises c. Infectious diseases d. Brain damage Answer: d. Each of these can be a cause of conductive hearing loss; however, brain damage or damage to the auditory nerve is a cause of sensorineural hearing loss rather than conductive hearing loss.

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91. What taste sense basically detects monosodium glutamate in food? a. Salty b. Umami c. Bitter d. Sour Answer: b. The taste sense of umami is the detection of monosodium glutamate in food that is eaten. 92. Where does vestibular sensation come from? a. The eyes b. The ears c. The spinal cord d. The skin Answer: b. The inner ear is the source of vestibular sensation, which involves dizziness when the inner ear is infected or otherwise abnormal. 93. What sensation is not associated with the vestibular system? a. The sense of balance b. Proprioception c. Hearing d. Kinesthetic sense Answer: c. Each of these is associated with the ear but hearing itself is not associated specifically with the vestibular system, while the others are directly linked to this part of the inner ear.

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94. What does Gestalt psychology mainly refer to? a. Pattern perceptions b. Relational psychodynamics c. Cognitive distortions d. Thought processes Answer: a. Gestalt psychology is mainly associated with the perception of patterns. 95. What type of learning is involved in the associative learning process also referred to as modeling? a. Operant conditioning b. Imprinting c. Classical conditioning d. Observational learning Answer: d. Each of these is a type of associative learning. Observational learning is also called modeling and does not require any form of tangible reinforcement. It is based on social phenomena instead. 96. What is the intended end goal of learning through play? a. The understanding of certain rules involved in play activities b. The building of physical fitness skills c. Increased socialization d. Play itself has no intended goal, only natural outcomes Answer: d. Play itself has no intended goal or expectations but there can be many natural outcomes related to learning that come out of the play experience.

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97. What is the process called in which a child learns values, language, and rituals gathered from their own culture? a. Episodic learning b. Acculturation c. Enculturation d. Imprinting Answer: c. Enculturation involves the learning of language, values, and rituals from one s own culture. Acculturation is related but involves picking up the same things from a new and different culture from one s culture of origin. 98. What is least likely to be a part of the psychomotor learning domain? a. Riding a bike b. Learning to solve a problem c. Driving a car d. Learning how to perform a dance Answer: b. Each of these is in the psychomotor learning domain except for problem-solving, which is primarily in the cognitive domain. 99. What type of transfer of learning happens when information is used to solve a problem that exists in a different context than the original one? a. Positive transfer b. Negative transfer c. Near transfer d. Far transfer Answer: d. Each of these is a transfer principle; however, far transfer involves the transfer of information in order to solve a problem that is in a different context than the original problem that has been mastered.

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100.

Sexual behavior is what type of learning?

a. Associative learning b. Modeling c. Reflexive d. Instinctual Answer: d. Sexual behavior is instinctual in all species and does not necessarily related to an actual learning process. 101.

What is not true of second-order conditioning?

a. It generally involves a conditioned stimulus b. There should be a close association between the conditioned stimulus and the conditioned response. c. The stimulus is generally a neutral one. d. Multiple conditioned stimuli can be presented in a row to elicit a response. Answer: d. Each of these is true of second-order conditioning except that it should be something basically simple and is less likely to work if there are multiple conditioned stimuli involved in eliciting a response. 102.

What is it called in classical conditioning when the conditioned response

becomes unpaired with the conditioned stimulus? a. Stimulus discrimination b. Stimulus generalization c. Extinction d. Acquisition Answer: c. With extinction, the conditioned response is not given along with the unconditioned stimulus for a period of time so that eventually there is a diminishment of the conditioned response when the conditioned stimulus is provided.

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What is it called in classical conditioning when the subject becomes

accustomed to the stimulus and no longer pays attention to it? a. Habituation b. Extinction c. Acquisition d. Stimulus generalization Answer: a. With habituation, the stimulus is presented so frequently and without an unconditioned stimulus so that there is no longer attention paid to the stimulus. 104.

In operant conditioning, what is something added in order to decrease the

likelihood of a behavior? a. Positive reinforcement b. Negative reinforcement c. Positive punishment d. Negative punishment Answer: c. A positive punishment in operant conditioning involves adding something after the behavior that is intended to decrease the likelihood of the behavior. 105.

In operant conditioning, what is something removed in order to increase

the likelihood of the behavior? a. Positive reinforcement b. Negative reinforcement c. Positive punishment d. Negative punishment Answer: b. In operant conditioning, a negative reinforcement is something that is taken away in order to increase the likelihood of the behavior.

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106.

In operant conditioning, what is not a part of shaping?

a. In shaping, only the target behavior is rewarded. b. It is necessary in order to attain complex behaviors. c. Only rewards are given as part of the process. d. It can be done in animals or humans. Answer: a. Shaping involves giving rewards to humans or animals in order to give rise to more complex behaviors. Rewards are given when approximations of the target behavior have been achieved. 107.

Which type of reinforcement schedule yields the highest response rate,

such as is seen with gambling? a. Fixed interval reinforcement b. Variable interval reinforcement c. Fixed ratio reinforcement d. Variable ratio reinforcement Answer: d. Variable ratio reinforcement is when a reinforcement is given after a variable number of responses. This is what is seen in gambling and is the most difficult type of behavior to extinguish. The highest response rate comes with this type of reinforcement schedule. 108.

Which type of reinforcement schedule involves the least response rates

and the greatest ability to extinguish the behavior? a. Fixed interval reinforcement b. Variable interval reinforcement c. Fixed ratio reinforcement d. Variable ratio reinforcement Answer: a. A fixed interval reinforcement schedule involves the least response rate and becomes the easiest type of response to ultimately extinguish.

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109.

What is the type of observational learning that involves using a fictional

character through reading, television, or the internet? a. Live modeling b. Verbal modeling c. Symbolic modeling d. Vicarious reinforcement Answer: c. With symbolic modeling, there is modeling of behaviors that can be seen in fictional characters, television, reading, or the internet. 110.

What type of intelligence is associated with fluid intelligence rather than

crystalized intelligence? a. Problem solving b. Learned information c. Memorization d. Memory Answer: a. Fluid intelligence includes things like problem solving and intuitive thinking that does not have to be learned, while crystallized intelligence involves things that are learned through experience. 111.

What is not a part of the triarchic theory of intelligence?

a. Practical intelligence b. Analytical intelligence c. Creative intelligence d. Fluid intelligence Answer: d. Fluid intelligence is not a part of the triarchic theory of intelligence; however, the others are included as part of this.

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112.

Which aspect of intelligence is related to computation and academics?

a. Practical intelligence b. Analytical intelligence c. Creative intelligence d. Fluid intelligence Answer: b. Analytic intelligence is related most to academics and to computational abilities. 113.

What is another name for the lexicon in language?

a. Grammatical rules b. Unspoken language c. Vocabulary words d. Parts of a word Answer: c. The lexicon is the vocabulary or the actual words of a specific language. The meaning of the words gets conveyed through the different grammatical rules. 114.

The way that words are formed into sentences is called what?

a. Morpheme b. Syntax c. Phoneme d. Semantics Answer: b. Syntax is the way that different words are formed into sentences. It depends a lot on the different types of grammar associated with the language.

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115.

The smallest unit of sound that is considered to have meaning is called

what? a. Morpheme b. Syntax c. Phoneme d. Semantics Answer: a. Morphemes are generally made from phonemes although a few phonemes are also considered morphemes. A morpheme is the smallest unit of sound that is believed to have meaning. The word I”, is both a morpheme and a phoneme. 116.

What is the earliest step involved in problem solving?

a. Deciding on the solution b. Deciding what the problem is c. Defining that there is a problem d. Trial and error Answer: c. The first step in problem solving is defining first that there is a problem before deciding what the problem is and undergoing trial and error. The last step is deciding on the solution. 117.

What best describes using an algorithm in order to solve a problem?

a. Trying different things to see what works. b. Working backwards until the problem is identified. c. Breaking up a big problem into several small problems. d. Using a step-by-step approach. Answer: d. When one uses an algorithm in order to solve a problem, a step-by-step approach is taken to find a solution to the problem.

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118.

What best describes using a heuristic approach in order to solve a

problem? a. Trying different things to see what works. b. Working backwards until the problem is identified. c. Using a step-by-step approach. d. Following the instruction book. Answer: b. A heuristic approach involves working backwards from the problem until the source of the problem is identified. 119.

What type of problem-solving pitfall involves basing a solution on a faulty

precedent? a. Representative bias b. Availability bias c. Hindsight bias d. Anchoring bias Answer: b. The availability bias involves basing a solution on an available but faulty precedent. 120.

Which pair of individuals have the most similar intelligence quotients?

a. Identical twins reared apart b. Siblings raised together c. Fraternal twins raised together d. Parent-child pairs living together Answer: a. Because of the high inheritability of intelligence, identical twins reared apart have the most similar intelligence quotients of all of these pairs.

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121.

What is the relationship between nature and nurture in shaping a child’s

IQ? a. Genetics and environment play an equal role b. Only the environment plays a role c. Only the genetics plays a role d. Genetics plays a greater role than the environment Answer: d. Genetics plays a greater role than the environment but both play a role in shaping the child s IQ. 122.

What does the Stanford-Binet test measure in psychology?

a. Personality b. Intelligence c. Spatial coordination d. Emotional conformity Answer: c. The Stanford-Binet test is the most commonly used intelligence test in the US. It is used to identify people who need extra help in school as well as those who are exceptionally intelligent. 123.

What score on intelligence testing is considered the mean?

a. 85 b. 100 c. 120 d. 140 Answer: b. A score of 100 on intelligence testing is considered normal or the mean level. Each 15 points above or below this is 1 standard deviation from the mean.

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124.

What intelligence quotient indicates mild intellectual delay?

a. 70 b. 90 c. 40 d. 20 Answer: a. Mild intellectual delay means an intelligence quotient of around 70 or slightly below that. There are mild, moderate, severe, and profound levels of intellectual delay. 125.

What factor plays the largest role in one’s personality development?

a. Temperament b. Intelligence c. Character d. Environment Answer: a. Temperament is genetically determined but the exact genes that play into this are unknown. It is believed to play the largest role in determining development of the individual s personality. 126.

Which stage of Erickson’s developmental stages is most associated with

fantasy behaviors and thinking? a. Toddler b. Preschool c. School age d. Adolescence Answer: b. The preschool years are most associated with fantasy and things like play that is based a great deal on fantasy.

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127.

According to Freud, what part of the personality involves primitive,

biological drives? a. Superego b. Ego c. Consciousness d. Id Answer: d. The id is subconscious and represents our most primitive and biological drives. It is present in a person from birth. 128.

According to Freud, what part of the personality is considered the most

rational aspect? a. Superego b. Ego c. Subconscious d. Id Answer: b. Ego is the rational part of the brain that balances conflicts between the id and the superego. It is mostly conscious and is the part of the personality that a person shows most to other people. 129.

Which defense mechanism involves attributing one’s own beliefs to

another and believing that the other person has those beliefs as well? a. Displacement b. Repression c. Denial d. Projection Answer: d. Projection involves taking one s beliefs and attributing those same beliefs to another person. Like all defense mechanisms, this is largely an unconscious process.

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130.

According to Freud, problems in what psychosexual stage of development

leads to a perfectionistic and stingy personality? a. Oral b. Anal c. Phallic d. Genital Answer: b. Problems with the anal phase can lead to a person who is excessively stingy and who has perfectionistic tendencies. 131.

Which researcher first proposed the idea of inferiority complex and the

need for superiority guiding a person’s behaviors and thoughts? a. Adler b. Freud c. Erikson d. Jung Answer: a. Alfred Adler was a Neo-Freudian who first identified the inferiority complex and believed that one s personality was driven by a need to have superiority rather than inferiority. 132.

Which researcher worked with the collective unconscious and brought up

the concepts of extroversion and introversion? a. Adler b. Freud c. Erikson d. Jung Answer: d. Carl Jung believed there was a collective unconscious that everyone had and that personality was partly formed by whether or not the person was extroverted or introverted.

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133.

According to trait theorists, what is the major traits defining a person’s

entire personality? a. Cardinal traits b. Primary traits c. Central traits d. Secondary traits Answer: a. A cardinal trait is one that defines a person s entire personality. There is usually just one or a couple of cardinal traits in one person. 134.

What type of test of personality is the Minnesota Multiphasic personality

test? a. A Likert-style self-report test b. An interpersonal interview test c. A projection test d. A true-false self-report test Answer: d. The MMPI is a true-false self-report test that identifies 10 different scales that together can represent the individual s personality. 135.

What type of personality test is the thematic apperception test?

a. A Likert-style self-report test b. An interpersonal interview test c. A projection test d. A true-false self-report test Answer: c. The thematic apperception test is an example of a projection test that is not based on asking any specific questions of the person.

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136.

Which personality test is designed specifically for Hispanic youth?

a. Thematic Apperception Test b. TEMAS Test c. Rorschach test d. Rotter Incomplete Sentence Test Answer: b. The TEMAS test is designed for minorities, particularly Hispanic youth, because it tests for those themes more common in this culture. 137.

Which personality disorder is not considered a cluster A personality

disorder? a. Paranoid personality disorder b. Borderline personality disorder c. Schizoid personality disorder d. Schizotypal personality disorder Answer: b. Each of these is a cluster A personality disorder, except for borderline personality disorder. Cluster A disorders have odd or bizarre personality traits and often will have characteristics of each of these disorders together. 138.

Which personality disorder involves a fear of others and a fear of social

interactions? a. Schizotypal personality disorder b. Paranoid personality disorder c. Antisocial personality disorder d. Borderline personality disorder Answer: a. People with schizotypal personality disorder have a fear of others and generally fear social interactions completely.

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139.

Which personality disorder is characterized by intense relationships with

frequent anger and violent outbursts? a. Narcissistic personality disorder b. Anankastic personality disorder c. Borderline personality disorder d. Dependent personality disorder Answer: c. Individuals with borderline personality disorder have short but intense relationships associated with violent outbursts and frequent episodes of anger. 140.

Which personality disorder is not a class C personality disorder?

a. Anankastic personality disorder b. Borderline personality disorder c. Dependent personality disorder d. Avoidant personality disorder Answer: b. Each of these is a class C personality disorder except for borderline personality disorder, which is a class B personality disorder. 141.

What type of encoding is associated with specific words and their

meaning? a. Semantic encoding b. Effortful processing c. Visual encoding d. Auditory encoding Answer: a. With semantic processing, there is encoding of words and their meaning. It is more easily done when images of the word can be retrieved and harder with abstract words.

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142.

What type of encoding is the easiest to do and results in the best overall

recall of the data? a. Semantic encoding b. Effortful processing c. Visual encoding d. Auditory encoding Answer: a. Basic words are best remembered through semantic encoding because there is meaning in the words that helps with recall. 143.

In which stage of the storage of memory is there rehearsal of the

information? a. Sensory input b. Sensory memory c. Short-term memory d. Long-term memory Answer: c. During short-term memory, there is rehearsal of the information in order to solidify and retain it to a significant degree. 144.

What type of memory is subconscious and is learned through behaviors?

a. Implicit memory b. Explicit memory c. Declarative memory d. Sensory memory Answer: a. Implicit memory is subconscious and is learned through behaviors. It can also be referred to as non-declarative memory.

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145.

Which type of memory lasts just a few seconds and is largely discarded?

a. Implicit memory b. Explicit memory c. Declarative memory d. Sensory memory Answer: d. Sensory memory is picked up by various sensations. Because there is so much of these types of data, this memory lasts just a few seconds and is largely discarded unless it seems to be important enough to hang onto. 146.

What type of memory is for things like driving a car and riding a bike?

a. Episodic memory b. Semantic memory c. Procedural memory d. Emotional conditioning Answer: c. Procedure memory is implicit and unconscious. It involves doing things like tasks that be done without thinking because of past practice of doing them. 147.

What type of retrieval involves getting back the knowledge of a language

you once learned but haven’t used in many years? a. Remembering b. Recognition c. Recall d. Relearning Answer: d. In this type of retrieval, the lapse in time and lack of use of the information leads to the need to relearn the information, which will be easier than learning it for the first time.

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148.

What part of the brain is least involved in memory functions?

a. Thalamus b. Amygdala c. Hippocampus d. Prefrontal cortex Answer: a. Each of these brain areas is a part involved in memory. The thalamus, however, is least involved in memory and in remembering things. 149.

What part of the brain is most associated with fear memories?

a. Cerebellum b. Amygdala c. Hippocampus d. Prefrontal cortex Answer: b. The amygdala is associated with the limbic system so it is most responsible for fear and the development of fear memories. 150.

Which neurotransmitter is most associated with the formation of strong

memories and high emotional states? a. Acetylcholine b. Dopamine c. Serotonin d. Glutamate Answer: d. Glutamate is an excitatory neurotransmitter that is triggered by strong emotions and will create a strong memory of something.

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151.

What type of memory is lost when a person has retrograde amnesia?

a. Procedural memory b. Episodic memory c. Semantic memory d. Emotional conditioning Answer: b. Episodic memory is lost in retrograde amnesia because the person cannot remember any details of their previous life prior to the injury 152.

What part of the brain is most affected with anterograde amnesia?

a. Cerebellum b. Amygdala c. Hippocampus d. Prefrontal cortex Answer: c. Because this person cannot form new questions, they will have a lack of functioning of the hippocampus. Most of the time, procedural memory skills are intact. 153.

When it comes to memory impairment, what memory impairment

problem comes from lapses in attention? a. Blocking b. Absentmindedness c. Misattribution d. Transience Answer: b. Absentmindedness is when there are momentary lapses in impairment that affect the ability to clearly remember things.

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154.

What memory enhancing device uses a nonsensical word or phrase that is

made from the first letter of a list of things you want to remember in a certain order? a. Mnemonics b. Elaborative rehearsal c. Chunking d. Self-referencing Answer: a. Mnemonics involves taking the first letter of a list of things that need to be memorized and making a nonsensical word or phrase to help you remember them. 155.

What would the urge to eat be when it comes to motivation?

a. Drive b. Homeostasis c. Habit d. Instinct Answer: a. Hunger or the urge to eat would be called a drive, which would come into play when a person s homeostasis is out of balance. 156.

What would the infant rooting reflex be with regard to motivation?

a. Drive b. Compensation c. Habit d. Instinct Answer: d. The infant rooting reflex is considered an instinct, which is something all human infants have.

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157.

Optimization of what factor leads to the best overall performance in an

activity, according to drive theory? a. Compensation b. Arousal c. Instincts d. Extrinsic motivation Answer: b. Good performance in a task or tasks depends on maximizing the person s arousal. Too much arousal leads to poor performance and too little arousal also leads to poor performance. 158.

What need specifically drives a person to do a good job, according to social

theorists? a. Compensation b. Affiliation c. Achievement d. Intimacy Answer: c. Social theorists define three basic needs. The need for achievement is what drives a person to succeed and to do a good job on a specific task. 159.

What hormone is mainly responsible for the sexual drive or libido in

women? a. Estrogen b. Growth hormone c. Prolactin d. Testosterone Answer: d. Testosterone is responsible for sexual libido or the drive toward sexual behavior in both men and women. Any lesion that affects the testosterone level will decrease libido.

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160.

Who first studied sexuality on a large scale in research circles?

a. William Masters b. Virginial Johnson c. Alfred Kinsey d. Robert Spitzer Answer: c. Alfred Kinsey published his first book on human sexuality in the 1940s, which became the first to study human sexual behavior on a large scale. 161.

According to Masters and Johnson, which phase of the sexual response

cycle most involves female rhythmic contractions? a. Excitement b. Plateau c. Orgasm d. Resolution Answer: c. Orgasm in women involves rhythmic contractions of the pelvic structures. This is not seen in men. 162.

What phase of sexual responsiveness is much longer in males than it is in

females? a. Refractory period b. Arousal period c. Resolution phase d. Orgasm phase Answer: a. The refractory period in women is short, while in men, the refractory period is longer and can be as long as a day, depending on the individual and their age.

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163.

What is not true of conversion therapy from homosexuality to

heterosexuality? a. It is illegal in some parts of the US b. It can be helpful with bisexual individuals c. It can be harmful to the individual d. It is largely ineffective. Answer: b. Each of these is true of conversion therapy except that it is not effective in bisexual individuals either. 164.

What specifically must be present in order to have gender dysphoria?

a. Distress over their condition b. Two years of gender discomfort c. The feeling that they are the opposite of their phenotype d. The need to have surgery to change their genitalia Answer: a. With gender dysphoria, the person must have some type of distress about their gender identity issues. Without the distress, it is not a disorder. 165.

In humans, what is considered to be the satiety hormone?

a. Ghrelin b. Glucagon c. Leptin d. Insulin Answer: c. The hormone leptin is released when a person is full and sated. This is the satiety hormone that stops the drive to eat.

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166.

In humans, what is considered to be the hunger hormone or the hormone

that triggers eating behaviors? a. Ghrelin b. Glucagon c. Insulin d. Leptin Answer: a. Ghrelin is the hunger hormone because it triggers a person to want to eat and increases food-seeking behaviors. 167.

What does bariatric surgery do?

a. It increases the metabolic rate b. It decreases the intake of food c. It decreases the absorption of food d. It both decreases intake and absorption of food Answer: d. Bariatric surgery can both decrease the intake and decrease the absorption of food but it depends on the type of surgery the individual has. 168.

Which eating disorder involves a preoccupation with body image and low

body weight? a. Anorexia nervosa b. Bulimia nervosa c. Binge eating disorder d. OSFED Answer: a. One of the main criteria for anorexia nervosa is low body weight, which can be achieved through tight control over eating, excessive exercise, or possibly purging behaviors.

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169.

What eating disorder involves eating large volumes of food over a short

period of time with feelings of shame and guilt afterward but no purging behaviors? a. Anorexia nervosa b. Bulimia nervosa c. Binge eating disorder d. OSFED Answer: c. Binge eating disorder involves eating large volumes of food in a short period of time but without any type of purging behaviors afterward. 170.

What eating disorder involves individuals who vomit or take laxatives

without eating large volumes of food and who have a normal weight? a. Anorexia nervosa b. Binge eating disorder c. Atypical anorexia d. Purging disorder Answer: d. People with purging disorder have purging behaviors but actually have tight control over their eating and are not underweight. If they were underweight, the diagnosis would have to be anorexia nervosa. 171.

Which structures are linked specifically to the limbic system?

a. Hippocampus b. Amygdala c. Cerebellum d. Hypothalamus Answer: c. Each of these is a part of the limbic system except for the cerebellum.

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172.

A person from which area of the world is most likely to make a

fundamental attribution error? a. Latin America b. East Asia c. Africa d. United States Answer: d. People who live in individualistic cultures are more likely to make the fundamental attribution error, while people from collectivistic cultures are less likely to make the same error. 173.

What is an attribute or focus specifically of an individualistic culture?

a. Situational perspective b. Independence c. Family relationships d. Holistic thinking Answer: b. Each of these is a focus of a collectivistic culture except for independence, which is a focus seen in individualistic cultures. 174.

What attribution aspect will most likely be given to you when you have a

success rather than a failure? a. Uncontrollable situation b. Internal factor c. External factor d. Unstable situation Answer: b. When there are successes, the attribution is more likely to be controllable, internal, and stable but when there is a failure, the attribution is more likely to be uncontrollable, external, and unstable.

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175.

Being uncomfortable with one’s thoughts, behaviors, or feelings is called

what? a. Persuasion b. Attitudes c. Cognitive dissonance d. Scripts Answer: c. Cognitive dissonance is when we have certain thoughts, behaviors, and feelings that differ from one s own self-perception. 176.

What is least likely to cause persuasion or a greater change in another’s

thinking? a. Having an attractive persuader b. Having a more positive message c. Having a credible persuader d. Having an audience with low intellect Answer: b. Each of these will influence or persuade more likely except for having a positive message, which does not necessarily cause a greater impact in changing the audience s opinion. 177.

What is a feature of using the central route to persuade an audience or

affect opinions? a. It focuses on positive feelings about something. b. It causes a temporary change in opinion. c. It does not require a motivated audience. d. It is logic-driven. Answer: d. The central route is logic-driven. It does not focus on positive feelings and requires a motivated audience. It is more likely to cause a permanent or lasting change in opinion.

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178.

What is the opposite of social facilitation?

a. Social conformity b. Social loafing c. Group polarization d. Groupthink Answer: b. Social loafing is doing worse on something when in a group situation, when social facilitation involves doing getter on something when in a group situation. 179.

Having a negative belief about someone because of the group they belong

to is called what? a. Discrimination b. Overgeneralization c. Prejudice d. Stereotyping Answer: c. Prejudice often comes from overgeneralization and stereotyping. It involves having a negative opinion or belief about someone based on their belonging to a different group than you do. 180.

Having a fixed belief about someone just because they belong to a certain

group is called what? a. Discrimination b. Overgeneralization c. Prejudice d. Stereotyping Answer: d. Stereotyping often comes from overgeneralization and involves having a fixed belief about someone just because they belong to a certain group.

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181.

Helping others because it makes you feel good about yourself is called

what? a. Prosocial behavior b. Empathy c. Egoism d. Altruism Answer: c. Egoism is in play when you help others or do some type of prosocial behavior because it makes you feel good about yourself. 182.

What most greatly contributes to having a friendship or relationship with

another person? a. Being opposite of the other person b. Being similar to the other person c. Having reciprocity in the relationship d. Being more frequently in contact with the other person Answer: d. Frequent contact and close proximity is the greatest factor contributing to having a friendship or relationship with another person or persons. 183.

What is least likely to be true of eustress?

a. The greater the stress, the more likely it is to be eustress. b. It leads to a greater sense of wellbeing. c. It can increase one’s maximal performance. d. It is considered to be a form of good stress. Answer: a. Eustress can be present up to a certain point but, after an increase beyond one s capacity to handle it, eustress turns into distress.

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184.

What group of individuals will have the lowest levels of stress?

a. Women b. Less educated people c. Retired persons d. Poorer people Answer: c. Retired persons are those who consistently have the least amount of stress in studies that have been done over the last three decades. 185.

Which hormone is not a part of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal or

HPA axis? a. Epinephrine b. CRF c. ACTH d. Cortisol Answer: a. Each of these is a part of the HPA axis except for epinephrine, which is part of the sympathetic nervous system. 186.

Statistically, who is least likely to experience a major traumatic event?

a. Men b. Lower socioeconomic status c. Better educated people d. Minorities Answer: c. Statistically, men, minorities, and people of a lower socioeconomic status have an increased likelihood of having a major traumatic event.

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187.

What is a major physiological disease that seems to be most highly affected

by stressors? a. Heart disease b. Dementia c. Diabetes d. Arthritis Answer: a. There is a significant impact of stress on the development of heart disease, although many other diseases can be affected by the presence of stress. 188.

People in what field are more likely to experience job burnout?

a. Factory workers b. Managers c. Helping professionals d. Computer analysts Answer: c. People in the helping professions are more likely to have job burnout, with feelings of not being able to do any more, being depersonalized, and having less job satisfaction. 189.

Which disease is least likely to be considered directly related to stress?

a. Kidney failure b. Irritable bowel syndrome c. Asthma d. Hypertension Answer: a. Each of these diseases has a strong psychological component; however, kidney failure is not necessarily related to chronic stressors or psychological diseases.

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190.

What aspect of the type A personality is most associated with the

development of heart disease? a. Need to feel rushed b. Need for achievement c. Hostility d. Sense of impatience Answer: c. While each of these can be seen in a person with type A personality, it is the hostility component most associated with the development of heart disease. 191.

Which relaxation technique involves the use of machines to measure

autonomic responses? a. Meditation b. Yoga c. Biofeedback d. Exercise therapy Answer: c. Biofeedback involves using machines to measure the autonomic response in order to learn strategies to make unconscious responses more conscious. 192.

What part of happiness specifically relates to personal contributions

toward good? a. Enriched life b. Good life c. Pleasant life d. Meaningful life Answer: d. People who have a meaningful life choose to use their skills and attributes to contribute to the overall good of the world and the people in it.

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193.

Which aspect of life is most associated with being happy?

a. Intelligence b. Being religious c. Being a parent d. Being physically attractive Answer: b. Being religious will most likely correlate with happiness, while intelligence, being a parent, and being physically attractive are not correlated with being happy. 194.

What is not a way to develop a phobia through learning theory?

a. Classical conditioning b. Operant conditioning c. Vicarious learning d. Obtaining information verbally Answer: b. Each of these represents a way of developing a phobia; however, operant conditioning, such as that learned through rewards and punishment, is not one of them. 195.

What is not a major feature of panic disorder?

a. Feeling episodes of chest pain and dizziness. b. Having an increased sensitivity to bodily reactions. c. Feeling depressed about public situations. d. Feeling as if one is going to die. Answer: c. Each of these is a feature of panic disorder, which involves the regular occurrence of panic attacks, except that there are usually anxiety symptoms and not depressive symptoms.

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196.

What is believed to be the underlying factor for obsessive-compulsive

disorder? a. The effects of classical conditioning b. Problems with the frontal lobe c. Excessive neglect in childhood d. Parental overprotectiveness Answer: b. OCD is moderately inherited with defects found in the patient s frontal lobe. Different areas of the frontal lobe are affected, depending on the type of obsessive-compulsive disorder. 197.

What must be present to make the diagnosis of PTSD?

a. Flashbacks b. Avoidance c. Prior traumatic experience d. Depersonalization Answer: c. There are many symptoms that come out of PTSD; however, this is the only DSM-5 diagnosis that specifically lists an underlying cause, which is prior traumatic experience. 198.

What is the most common underlying factor behind the development of

dissociative identity disorder? a. High levels of intelligence b. Military combat trauma c. Faulty brain chemistry d. Childhood physical or sexual abuse Answer: d. The person with DID has a 95 percent chance of having childhood physical or sexual abuse in their past, making it the biggest risk factor for the disorder.

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199.

How long do symptoms of depression have to be there in order to make

the diagnosis of major depressive disorder? a. Two weeks b. Three months c. Six months d. One year e. Answer: a. While major depressive disorder is recurrent, it only needs to last two weeks at a time to be referred to as having an episode of the disease state. 200. What psychological disorder most predicts suicidality? a. Schizophrenia b. Obsessive-compulsive disorder c. Major depression d. Bipolar disorder Answer: d. Mood disorders in general will predict suicidality, with bipolar disorder carrying the greatest risk overall.

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College Level Psychology

Articles inside

Course Questions and Answers

Summary

Quiz

Types of Therapy

Mood Disorders

Quiz

Key Takeaways

Schizophrenia

Key Takeaways

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorders

Anxiety Disorders

Quiz

Key Takeaways

Stressors

Quiz

Regulating Stress

Happiness

Stress and Disease

Key Takeaways

Social Aggression

Prosocial Behavior

Basis of Emotion

Conformity, Obedience, and Compliance

Quiz

Attitudes and Persuasion

Discrimination and Prejudice

Eating Disorders

Key Takeaways

Memory Impairment

Sexual Behavior

Quiz

Memory Enhancements

Hunger and Satiety

Biological Basis of Memory

Quiz

Key Takeaways

Personality Disorders

Approaches to Personality

Personality Development

Freud and Neo-Freudians in Personality Development

Personality Assessment

Quiz

Key Takeaways

Sources of Intelligence

Intelligence Assessment

Problem Solving

Language

Quiz

Modeling

Operant Conditioning

Classical Conditioning

Quiz

Gestalt Principles of Sensation

Other Senses

Quiz

Hearing

Waves

Vision

Key Takeaways

Sleep Disorders

Altered States of Consciousness

History of Consciousness

Sleep and Stages of Sleep

Quiz

Key Takeaways

Adolescent Development

Developmental Stages

Quiz

Theories on Lifespan Development

Biopsychology

Neurotransmitters

Key Takeaways

The Endocrine System

Brain Imaging

Parts of the Nervous System

Ethics in Psychological Research

Quiz

Key Takeaways