Dissertation - Olivia Pappas

The Evolution of Minimalism Within Contemporary Sacred Interiors

Olivia Pappas Bachelor of Interior Architecture (Honours) Final Year Dissertation

Abstract Minimalism initially arose during the 1960s where it originated as an art movement and caused an uproar in society. Minimalism has continued to evolve where it has shifted past its novelty phase as an art movement and has transitioned into other mediums such as music and film, as well as having entered the architectural realm, more specifically within sacred interiors.

Whilst the emergence of minimalism within sacred interiors has significantly developed over recent decades, there is little to no research that has been conducted that questions the influence of minimalism within this realm.

This dissertation seeks to investigate how historical and contemporary influences have shaped the evolution of minimalism within sacred interiors to understand its significance within this realm. It also seeks to question if minimalism within church architecture can contribute value to these cherished bodies, or if it merely adds aesthetic value.

Historical notions that can be seen to have parallels with minimalism will be explored, which will lead into the discussion of the contemporary influences which have shaped the interpretation of minimalism within sacred interiors. This research will be conducted through the analysis of historical documents, exploring case studies and researching architects to understand how their personal influences have shaped their architectural style. Three precedent studies will then be analysed in-depth through the use of secondary sources. These sources will analyse plans and images of the interiors and utilise the supporting commentary from architects and design critics to synthesise these precedent studies with the theoretical framework.

Ultimately, this dissertation endeavours to illustrate how historical and contemporary influences have informed the evolution of minimalism within sacred interiors.

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Acknowledgements

I would like to thank Dr Sing D’Arcy for his mentorship, wisdom and patience during this process.

For his encouragement and belief in me.

To my family and Tomas Khoury for their support and reassurance during many stressful nights.

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List of illustrations Figure 1.01: Kim, H 1566, Image showing an example of iconoclasm in the St. Martinâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Cathedral, Utrecht, Netherlands, Henry van Vianen, digital photograph, ThinkLink, accessed 5 October 2019, <https://www.thinglink.com/scene/918208318726471681>.

Figure 1.02: Bartel, T 2018, Interior of Toledo Cathedral showing the gold detailing, 1493, Petrus Petri, Toledo, Spain, digital photograph, Travel Past 50, accessed 3 October 2019, <https://travelpast50.com/toledo-spain-cathedral/>.

Figure 1.03: Lepke, S 2013, Interior of St Johnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Church, Dusseldorf, Germany showing the minimalistic interior, digital photograph, EKD, <https://www.ekir.de/www/service/ekd17164.php> Figure 2.01 Schimpf, E, Year Unknown, Image showing the bare interior of the Schindler House, West Hollywood (1922) as an interpretation of the Japanese aesthetic, digital photograph, KINFOLK, accessed 14 October 2019, <https://kinfolk.com/schindler-house/> Figure 2.02 Denzer, A 2013, Image showing the exterior view of IIT Chapel, Illinois (1952), designed

by Ludwig Mies van der Rohe (1886-1969), digital image, Solar House History, accessed 10 October 2019, <http://solarhousehistory.com/blog/2015/4/19/heating-of-mies-van-der-rohesiit-chapel> Figure 2.03. Author unknown, 2010, Image showing the interior of Villa Savoye, 1929, Le Corbusier, Poissy,

France,

digital

photograph,

ArchDaily,

accessed

17

October

2019,

<https://www.archdaily.com/84524/ad-classics-villa-savoye-lecorbusier?ad_medium=gallery>.

Figure 2.04. Author unknown, 2010, Image showing the repetition of white and blank surfaces as a characteristic of minimalism within Villa Savoye, France (1929), digital photograph, ArchDaily, accessed 17 October 2019, <https://www.archdaily.com/84524/ad-classics-villasavoye-le-corbusier?ad_medium=gallery>.

Figure 2.05. Author unknown, 2015, Interior view of the Grundtvig Church, Denmark (1940) showing how the repetition of materiality within the church, digital image, Yellowtrace, accessed 19th October 2019, <https://www.yellowtrace.com.au/grundtvig-church-copenhagen/> 3

Figure 3.01. Hufton+Crow, 2013, Image showing the interior floorplan of the Saint Moritz Church, digital image, ArchDaily, accessed 25 October 2019, <https://www.archdaily.com/456312/interior-remodelling-st-moritz-church-john-pawson>

Figure 3.02. McCarragher, G 2013, Image showing the interior of the Saint Moritz Church, the nave and the Baroque-style clerestory arches, digital image, Dezeen, accessed 25 October 2019, <https://www.dezeen.com/2013/07/31/st-moritz-church-by-john-pawson/>

Figure 3.03 McCarragher, G 2013, Image showing the strong contrast between the white walls and dark-stained timber joinery in the church choir in the Saint Moritz Church, digital image, DesignBoom, accessed 25 October 2019, < https://www.designboom.com/architecture/johnpawson-sensitively-restores-st-moritz-church-in-germany-12-03-2013/>

Figure 3.04. Hufton+Crow, 2013, Image showing the contrast between the white walls and the darkstained timber joinery which houses the pipe organ within the Saint Moritz Church, digital image, ArchDaily, accessed 25 October 2019, <https://www.archdaily.com/456312/interiorremodelling-st-moritz-church-john-pawson>

Figure 3.05. McCarragher, G 2013, Image showing the interior of Saint Moritz Church and the religious symbols that have been placed in the lateral aisles, digital image, DesignBoom, accessed 25 October 2019, <https://www.designboom.com/architecture/john-pawson-sensitively-restoresst-moritz-church-in-germany-12-03-2013/>

Figure 3.06. Cole, E Image showing the interior floorplan of Church of the Light, Ibaraki, Japan, digital image, Quantummmof, accessed 1 November 2019, <https://quantummmof5.wixsite.com/architecture/the-omnipresence-of-god>

Figure 3.07. Fijii, N & Verena A 2011, Image showing the interior of Church of the Light and the light entering the church in the shape of a cross, which appears to cut through the concrete, digital image, ArchDaily, accessed 30 October 2019, <https://www.archdaily.com/101260/adclassics-church-of-the-light-tadao-ando>

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Figure 3.08. Saieg, N 2010, Image showing the interior floorplan of the Bruder Klaus Field Chapel, digital image, ArchDaily, accessed 2 November 2019, <https://www.archdaily.com/85656/multiplicity-and-memory-talking-about-architecturewith-peter-zumthor?ad_medium=gallery>

Figure 3.09 Ludwig, S & Mayer T 2011, Image showing an exterior of the Bruder Klaus Field Chapel, (2007), and where it is situated within the landscape of Mechernich, Germany, digital image, ArchDaily, accessed 2 November 2019, <https://www.archdaily.com/106352/bruder-klausfield-chapel-peter-zumthor>

Figure 3.10. Ludwig, S & Mayer T 2011, Image showing the interior of the Bruder Klaus Field Chapel, and the final result after the pine tree trunk were set ablaze, which left the interior charred and hollow, digital image, ArchDaily, accessed 2 November 2019, <https://www.archdaily.com/106352/bruder-klaus-field-chapel-peter-zumthor>

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Table of contents

Abstract…………………………………………………………………...…………………………….1 Acknowledgements………………………………………………………………………...…………...2 List of Illustrations……………………………………………………………………………………...3 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………...………...7 Chapter One: ………………………....….………...…...……………………………………………..10 Chapter Two:…...……………………………………..…………………..…………………………...17 Chapter Three: ………………………………………………………………………………………...26 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………………………….37 List of references………………………………………………………………………………………39

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Introduction The rise of minimalism initially began as a phenomenon during the twentieth and twenty-first century, however traits of minimalism have been present for centuries (Classen, 1990: 101). Minimalism at first, arose as a rebuke and response against the consumption of material possessions, which soon developed into a lifestyle where living as a â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;minimalistâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; became desirable (Vasilski & Nikolic, 2017: 343). The notion of living with less soon developed within sacred interiors as a product of this phenomenon as an attempt for humans to bring themselves closer to a higher ethereal presence (Humphrey & Vitebsky, 1997: 08). This dissertation will discuss how the evolution of minimalism within sacred interiors can be attributed to historical and contemporary influences, which have ultimately shaped this development.

The first chapter of this dissertation will establish a contextual framework of how historical influences have informed the evolution of minimalism within sacred interiors. The chapter begins by providing a brief overview of monasticism to highlight how characteristics of minimalism can be seen to have parallels with living a monastic life, which emphasises that the development of minimalism can be interpreted as a manifestation of living a monastic life and denies the rise of minimalism as a contemporary art movement. This is explored further through influential monks who were amongst the first to renounce wealth and daily life to live an ascetic life, highlighting similarities between minimalism traits. The discussion will then shift to iconoclasm to demonstrate how the rebuke of religious symbols can also be synthesised to have parallels to minimalism. This will be further substantiated as the discussion is then directed to exploring aspects of aestheticism and asceticism to demonstrate how the shift from extreme ornamentation to a rejection of this decoration can be seen as an interpretation of the development of minimalism. The first chapter ultimately aims to explore how historical influences seen within the Christian church can be observed to have parallels with minimalism. This is particularly notable as these influences acted as a catalyst that steered contemporary sacred interiors into the realm of minimalism, which will be substantiated in the following chapter, and further reinforced through a series of contemporary case studies in the final chapter of this dissertation.

The second chapter will provide a framework of the contemporary influences which serves to prove that these contemporary influences, when merged with historical influences outlined in chapter one, have shaped the evolution of minimalism within sacred interiors. This chapter also analyses a series of case studies which aim to support the framework provided earlier in this chapter. Firstly, this chapter explores minimalism and analyses the trajectory it has taken within sacred interiors. Minimalism, within the architectural realm, can be defined as perfection that is achieved when it is no longer possible to improve the outcome through subtraction (Pawson, 1996: 07). The impact of post-war modernism 7

within the realm of interiors as well as more specifically, within sacred interiors, will be analysed to discuss how this influenced the interpretation of minimalism within the twentieth century. FrenchSwiss architect and a known pioneer of post-modern architecture Le Corbusier (1887-1965) incorporates minimalist conventions within his work, which will be analysed through Villa Savoye, France (1929). This analysis serves to provide a framework to emphasise how minimalism can be recognised to have risen as a result of post-war modernism and as a rebuke against the accumulation of materialistic objects from the rise of mass-consumption. The Grundtvig Church, Denmark (1940), designed by Peder Vilhelm Jensen Klint (1853-1930) and Kaare Klint (1888-1954), will also be analysed to illustrate how these architects implemented architectural conventions that define a minimalist interior, such as scale, repetition and materiality, prior to the conception of minimalism, thus eradicating the notion of minimalism as an art movement and emphasising that these contemporary influences have shaped the development of minimalism within interiors and sacred interiors. A brief history of Japanese culture and Zen Buddhism will also be discussed to highlight how minimalism, and more specifically minimalism within sacred interiors, can be interpreted as a manifestation of Japanese culture and traditions. The interpretation of Japanese culture and Zen Buddhism will be explored through the lens of the Schindler House, West Hollywood, (1922), designed by Rudolph Schindler, to emphasise how Japanese culture has been interpreted as a design aesthetic in an attempt to replicate notions of Zen Buddhism into western architecture. This chapter ultimately seeks to provide a framework to demonstrate how minimalism has evolved within the architectural realm of sacred interiors and to emphasise that contemporary influences, as outlined in this chapter, together with the historical influences, as outlined in chapter one, have morphed the progression and interpretation of minimalism within contemporary sacred interiors.

The final chapter of this dissertation focuses on the analysis of three contemporary case studies that act as evidence to the theoretical framework that will be provided in chapters one and two, which seek to prove the hypothesis that historical and contemporary influences have shaped the evolution of minimalism within sacred interiors. The case studies chosen in this chapter explores three contemporary minimalist sacred interiors, each within unique contexts and designed by different architects. The first case study will focus on the Saint Moritz Church (2007) by John Pawson. This monastery is situated within Augsburg Germany. The second case study examines the Ibaraki Kasugaoka Church, most commonly known as Church of the Light (1999) by Tadao Ando, which is located in Ibaraki, Japan.

The third and final case concerns Peter Zumthorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Bruder Klaus Field Chapel (2007) which is located in Mechernich, Germany. All three of these examples will illustrate how contemporary minimalism has been developed as an interpretation of the theoretical research that will be explored further within chapters one and two. By considering both the historical footprints of these spaces, a greater understanding of monasticism, iconoclasm, asceticism, together with contemporary influences such as 8

Japanese culture and Zen Buddhism, can be recognised to have influenced these spaces. The spatial analysis of these case studies will explore the lighting strategies, materiality decisions and the implementation of scale. Through a spatial analysis of these three precedents, informed by the historical and contemporary influences researched within this dissertation, the case studies demonstrate how historical and contemporary influences have shaped the evolution of minimalism within sacred interiors.

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Chapter One: Historical Influences on the Development of Minimalism within Sacred Interiors In order to delve into the realm of minimalism and to explore the direction it has taken in contemporary sacred interiors, there must first be an investigation to analyse the different interpretations of minimalism throughout the centuries. This chapter will explore different aspects of the Christian church and how minimalism can be seen to have its roots in these. The first part of the chapter will analyse monasticism and significant monastic figures to draw parallels between this notion and minimalism to substantiate how this historic tradition has influenced the interpretation of minimalism within contemporary sacred interiors. This will lead into the framework for part two, which discusses Iconoclasm and how this movement has had a substantial impact in the rebuke of religious symbols within sacred interiors, whilst uncovering evidential ties to the development of minimalism in contemporary sacred interiors. Part three of this chapter investigates the bifurcation between aestheticism and asceticism, and how the principles of these opposing notions can be seen within minimalism. This chapter will demonstrate that minimalism has always been a continual aspect of the church in different forms since its beginnings, which has ultimately influenced the development of minimalism within contemporary sacred interiors.

Monasticism This first section will look at the history of monasticism to illustrate how this key movement of the church had a compelling influence in the aesthetic of minimalism, which has been translated into contemporary sacred interiors. Monasticism is the practice of surrendering materialistic pursuits in the secular world, in order to devote life entirely to Christian worship (New World Encyclopedia, 2008).

The word itself derives from the Greek word, ‘monos’ meaning ‘alone’, and is evident throughout several different religions, including Buddhism, Hinduism, Judaism (Britannica 2019). However, monasticism has been most influential through Christianity, therefore in order to achieve a thorough comprehension of how monastic traditions can be seen within minimalism, this religion will be the sole focus of this discussion (New World Encyclopedia 2008). Whilst the concept of Christian monasticism and monastic actions have been present for centuries, there has been an inherent inability to establish the origin of this tradition. Moreover, ethnologist Anita Goswami recognised that whilst there is extreme uncertainty with the origins of Christian monasticism, she noted Saint Anthony the Great (251AD356AD), Saint Basil the Great (330AD-379AD) and Paul of Thebes (227AD-342AD), as being upon the first monks to embark on a monastic life (Goswami 2006: 1331). Goswami went on to detail the first known recording of monasticism, which was in Egypt during the 3rd or 4th century AD (Goswami 2006: 1330). During this time, it was known and recorded that Saint Anthony the Great had travelled and found comfort in Pispir in Egypt, a mountain located within the desert by the Nile, otherwise known 10

today as Deir al-Maymun, Egypt (Bolman & Godeau 2002: 10). Living a monastic life as a hermit required extremely high levels of self-discipline as it required one to live in complete isolation, whilst also fasting and being completely obedient to a religious leader (Goswami, 2006: 1329). The monks that embarked on this lifestyle lived in a high degree of bodily discomfort in order to achieve a stronger connection with God and achieve a form of spiritual or personal enlightenment (Goswami, 2006: 1329).

The monks also avoided marriage and secluded themselves from family and ‘seductive lures of the world’ (Harmless, 2004: 02). Through the devotion of such a practice, it may be deduced that Saint Anthony the Great’s decision to live a monastic life was able to ‘provide a place where the inhabitant can regain inner peace by the absence of any distractive element’ (Verhetsel & Pombo 2013: 35). This notion was explained by architectural theorists Verhetsel and Pombo, to describe the intention of living as a minimalist, which demonstrates how living a monastic life and minimalism can be equated together.

A superficial study may view monasticism and minimalism to be unrelated and isolated concepts, however an in-depth assessment to compare monasticism and minimalism, reveal the two concepts to have parallels. However, when considering the similarities between monasticism and minimalism, the main aspect of disparity remains in minimalism’s lack of religious influence (Thelle, 2011: 68). The origin of monasticism developed with the intention to sacrifice luxuries of common life, which led to the renunciation of sacred architecture as the monks viewed churches as being grand and luxurious, which was seen as a distraction from the intention of creating a deeper spiritual connection (Goswami, 2006: 1329). This can be seen to have similarities to minimalism as this has been translated into a lifestyle that serves to visually please through the art of reduction (Stevanovic, 2011: 21). This emphasises how parallels of monasticism and minimalism can be drawn together to reinstate how minimalism can be seen as an interpretation of monastic traditions, and therefore how monasticism has influenced the contemporary development of minimalism within sacred interiors. The next section will discuss and provide a historical framework of iconoclasm, which will lead into how this movement can be seen to have influenced the evolution of minimalism within sacred interiors.

Iconoclasm The social belief of ‘iconoclasm’ came into existence during the Byzantine empire during 726AD as Christian icons and images containing human figurations were interpreted as idols by a sector of society.

This ultimately led to the intentional destruction of religious icons as it was believed to be against biblical scriptures. Iconoclasm originates from the two Greek derivates of “eikon”, meaning icon and “klastes”, meaning breaker, and had originated with the intention to eradicate religious icons, statues, paintings or any other physical entity which presents to have religious significance or spiritual power.

However, it must be noted that iconoclasm was an uprising against the act of worshipping these religious 11

icons, rather than an attack on the act of worshipping itself. This belief has been traced back to Christian biblical scriptures in the Ten Commandments in the Old Testament, which recounts; You shall have no other gods before Me You shall not make for yourself a carved image – any likeness of anything that is in heaven above, or that is in the earth beneath, or that is in the water under the earth (Exodus 20:3-4 New King James Version).

Whilst the origin of this uprising is tied to the Bible, the development of iconoclasm can be traced back to the Protestant Reformation (1517-1648) and Counter-Reformation as a result of the clash between Roman Catholic and Protestant political and religious ideologies (Bradshaw, 1983). German monk, Martin Luther (1483-1546), was a significant figure during this time as he demanded the restructure of the Roman Catholic Church after witnessing evidence of political corruption through the selling of indulgences by Pope Leo X (1475-1521), to fund the construction of the St Peter’s Basilica (Bradshaw, 1983), which led to the Reformation. The Reformation that resulted from Luther’s uprising, aimed to redefine doctrines of the church to emphasise that following God’s word would lead to spiritual eternity, as opposed to the purchase of these indulgences and the worship of idols (Bradshaw, 1983). Iconoclasm was seen during this time of Luther’s uprising as a rebuke against the idolisation of physical religious symbols, as this was seen as worshipping a ‘carved image’ and against biblical scriptures, which ultimately furthered the division between Roman Catholic and Protestant ideologies and led to the partition and birth of these two denominations (Wolffe, 2013: 91). After this uprising, surrounding countries such as Germany, Netherlands and England had started to break away from the Catholic church and became predominantly Protestant. Riots in these countries began to break out which led to the destruction of religious symbols, in support of the Reformation and led to the rise of iconoclasm.

St. Martin’s Cathedral, a Protestant church in Utrecht, Netherlands, is a particularly pertinent example as it clearly displays an example of Iconoclasm, as evident in figure 1.01, as a result of the Reformation.

The destruction in this church was initiated by highly respected figures such as ministers by declaring that idolising these images went against biblical scriptures and against God’s word. This illustrates how the opposing ideologies between Roman Catholic and Protestant churches led to the different aesthetic adaptations within these two denominations. During this partition, Roman Catholic churches adopted a highly aesthetic and decorative approach which utilised religious symbols as an approach of worship within the church, whereas Protestant churches adopted a more minimal approach, and denied the use of any religious symbols when worshipping, which establishes Protestant churches of this time as iconoclastic (Wolffe, 2013: 91). The omission of ornamentation within Protestant churches as well the clear articulation of Protestant churches as being iconoclastic, substantiates how minimalism has 12

developed as a product of iconoclasm and emphasises how this historical influence has contributed to the evolution of minimalism within contemporary sacred interiors. The next section will further detail aspects of aestheticism and asceticism to emphasise how these opposing interpretations can also be seen to have influenced the development of minimalism within contemporary church architecture.

Figure 1.01. Image showing an example of iconoclasm in the St Martin’s Cathedral, 1566, Henry van Vianen, Utrecht, Netherlands, Hillary Kim, 2015

Aestheticism & asceticism Aestheticism and asceticism are opposing ideologies, which have significantly influenced the development of church architecture for centuries. Both philosophies stemmed from identical intentions from the Reformation but differ in their conception and interpretation.

Aestheticism can be defined as ‘a devotion to beauty, and to beauty primarily as found in the arts and in whatever is attractive in the world around us’ (Johnson 1969: 01). The concept of aestheticism is most prevalently seen through the implementation of luxurious material items in sacred interiors, which is a feature commonly seen in Roman Catholic churches (Johnson, 1969: 01). Gold is commonly integrated into these sacred interiors to symbolise and reference many passages in the Christian bible.

Firstly, it aims to establish a sense of power and create an ethereal atmosphere to acknowledge the presence of a higher force (Johnson, 1969: 03). Gold has also been commonly referenced in biblical scriptures to symbolise the golden and pure nature of the Christian paradise as the ‘use of gold and treasures in the church context further allowed individuals to unburden themselves of wealth and so become spiritually rich’ (Janes, 1998: 165), which alludes to the gain of spiritual wealth when in the presence of Christ. Therefore, the implementation of gold in sacred interiors serves to establish aestheticism as a movement that existed to glorify and replicate the temple of God whilst stimulating 13

the senses to create a heightened sense of physicality and connectivity between Christ and His worshippers in the church.

The Cathedral of Toledo, a Roman Catholic church in Spain (1493), has been positioned as highly influential in the aestheticism era, during the 1860s, by architectural historian Charles Knight (Knight, 1840: 492). Theologist Amy Beauchamp recognised that ‘church designs that appear blasé, or unconcerned with interior elements may portray no sincerity of reverence to an almighty God’ (Beauchamp, 2008: 08), emphasising that the intention of aestheticism is to contribute value to worship.

The gold that floods the interior of the Cathedral, as seen in figure 1.02, has been recognised as a significant element that has contributed to the Cathedral being renowned as one of ‘the greatest and most magnificent of Gothic temples’ (Knight, 1840: 492). Knight alluded to this phenomenon as he described ‘the lofty and majestic aisles, the massive and far-stretching columns of a temple like this, seem almost to shadow forth the imperishable nature of the religion whose sanctuary they adorn and uphold’ (Knight, 1840: 494). This Cathedral displays aspects of the Catholic church as a product of the Reformation, as the approach of the Roman Catholics was to integrate high levels of ornamentation and detailing to enrich levels of astonishment and awe from the beholders (Knight, 1840: 493).

Figure 1.02. Interior of Toledo Cathedral showing the gold detailing, 1493, Petrus Petri, Toledo, Spain, Tom Bartel, 2018

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In contrast to this, asceticism consists of practices of restraint and obedience that are voluntarily undertaken in order to achieve a state of self-actualisation (Wilson, 2015: 01). This philosophy is known to have originated from biblical scriptures which details that ‘there is no creature hidden from His sight, but all things are naked and open to the eyes of Him to whom we must give account’ (Hebrews 4:13 New King James Version). Beauchamp recognised and critiqued this ideology by declaring ‘extremely ornate church interiors, to some, may “display” its grandeur as they worship Christ, yet Christ himself was born in a stable’ (Beauchamp, 2008: 8), emphasising that the intention of this ideology is to reduce the materialistic relationship that excessive detailing has ironically introduced within sacred interiors.

The St John’s Church, the largest Protestant church in Dusseldorf, Germany (1881) can be seen to encompass traits of ‘quietness, sobriety and harmony of mind, spirit and nature’, (Verhetsel and Pombo, 2013: 30) which Verhetsel and Pombo described as minimalist elements, whilst simultaneously upholding the Romanesque Revival style of architecture. Figure 1.03 shows a marriage between Romanesque Revival style architecture and the implementation of minimalist elements which alludes to an ascetic influence. As this church was built during the time this architectural style was in reign, it is still characterised by the traditional wide arches, and thick columns, which defines this style.

However, the high levels of constraint in the material palette and the omission of ornamentation and detailing illustrate this church as encompassing minimalist traits. Whilst minimalism had not been established during this period in time, similarities between the two can be drawn, which emphasises how historical aspects such as influences from the Reformation and the impact this had on Protestant churches, has influenced the interpretation of minimalism within contemporary sacred interiors.

Figure 1.03. Interior of St John’s Church, Dusseldorf, Germany showing the minimalistic interior

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Upon reflecting on the first chapter of this dissertation, a framework outlining the historical influence of Monasticism, Iconoclasm as well as Aestheticism and Asceticism has been established, effectively demonstrating how this historical context introduced and synthesised such parallels to minimalism.

Devising this versatile, yet mandatory framework to communicate the influence that historical factors have had on the development of minimalism, will be further substantiated in the upcoming chapters.

An understanding of these historical influences was fundamental as it will provide valuable context for the further notions that will be explored in the upcoming chapter. The following chapter will provide an in-depth discussion of the development of minimalism within contemporary sacred interiors, which will be substantiated by precedent studies following in chapter three.

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Chapter Two: The Trajectory of Minimalism During Twentieth and Twentyfirst Century Architecture within Sacred Interiors This chapter will explore the trajectory of minimalism and the direction it has taken in late twentieth and twenty-first century architecture, alongside examining the influences of minimalism within sacred interiors. This chapter will explore how minimalism developed as a manifestation and interpretation of Japanese culture and how this culture has been reinterpreted as an aesthetic within westernised society to emphasise how Japanese culture instigated the thinking behind the minimalist movement. The discussion will analyse the development of minimalism during post-war modernism and explore how it was influenced from Japanese culture. This will demonstrate how the emergence of the minimalist movement, during the late twentieth century, influenced the development of minimalism within sacred interiors. The overall aim of this chapter is to highlight how contemporary influences have impacted the evolution of minimalism within sacred interiors.

Minimalism initially emerged as a design movement during post-war modernism (Verhetsel & Pombo, 2013: 30), as it expressed new ways of thinking at the end of the twentieth century (Vasilski, 2014: 277). Modernism arose through Marxism, which was influenced from Japanese culture (Barshay, 1992: 368). Marxists implemented aspects of Japanese culture into western society through the reinterpretation of this culture (Barshay, 1992: 368). The use of commonly found materials, such as concrete, timber and steel, and lack of detailing, as seen in Japanese culture, was interpreted as being able to be mass-produced in western society to provide higher levels of equality amongst the masses, which ultimately led to the rise of modernism (Almodovar-Melendo, 2014: 44). Whilst it has been substantially problematic to define minimalism, John Pawson, a British architect and an established influencer of minimalism, recognised that minimalism can be identified when ‘it is no longer possible to improve subtraction and when all the components and details are reduced to the essence’ (Pawson, 1996: 07). Verhetsel & Pombo claimed that minimalism was thought to have derived as an attempt to ‘embrace sobriety and cleanliness upon the search for pure form and visual silence’ (Verhetsel & Pombo 2013: 31), which is an adverse reaction to minimalism being criticised for being seemingly ‘cold, abstract and sterile’ (Obendorf, 2009: 56).

This section of the dissertation will examine Japanese culture as it has been considered a significant factor of inspiration for minimalism within contemporary sacred interiors. An analysis will also be undertaken to interpret how characteristics of the Japanese aesthetic have been translated as minimal within contemporary interiors in order to comprehend the intention of this phenomenon. A framework 17

into the history of Japan will also be investigated to document how Japanese culture journeyed into the western world. A precedent study will then be analysed to illustrate how interiors have been influenced

by Japanese culture, to ultimately investigate the intention of these parallels. Minimalism will be defined in this chapter to synthesise how Japanese culture can be seen within minimalism. Whilst minimalism has been perceived as a relatively new lifestyle (Vasilski & Nikolic, 2017: 334), the influence of Japanese culture on western society has been extremely prevalent within the realm of architecture and interiors. The foundation of minimalist architecture, within the realm of Japanese culture, simplifies spaces with the intention to expose the inner beauty and quality of the building itself (Almodovar-Melendo, 2014: 44).

After a period of self-imposed isolation from other nations, known as Sakoku, Japan became open to the world after 1868, which saw the conclusion of the Meiji Restoration (Almodovar-Melendo & Cabeza-Lainez, 2018: 500). The Meiji Restoration saw the end of the Tokugawa Shogunate government and ultimately introduced a new standard of political and social values in Japan. This began the initialisation of communication with other nations and saw the introduction of consumption of Japan’s culture amongst westernised society (Kitaoka, 2018: 06). Subsequent to this newly accessible Japan, there was a rapid influx in tourism levels and the interest of the undiscovered Japanese culture was highly sought-after and replicated within westernised cultures, which was commonly seen through architecture (Almodovar-Melendo & Cabeza-Lainez, 2018: 500). Zen Buddhism, a key factor of Japanese culture, also had a compelling influence on the transcendence and interpretation of the Japanese aesthetic into the western world. Whilst Zen Buddhism has been interpreted as an aesthetic in aim to achieve ‘simplicity and social harmony’ (Verhetsel & Pombo 2013: 32), a further study of this philosophy reveals this approach as superficial. Japanese philosopher, Shigenori Nagatomo, articulated that Zen Buddhism is ‘not an ideology but a way of living’ (Nagatomo, 2019). Zen Buddhism does not follow the framework of other religions as it does not conform nor praise a higher force and does not follow physical doctrines (Venn, 2006, 477). The epitome of Zen Buddhism pertains to mindfulness, in the sense that all humans are able to discover enlightenment and can find solutions to any curiosity or concern within one’s self (Papadimitriou, 2015: 57). This is often achieved through discipline and strict meditation, as opposed to dedicating life in accordance to physical scriptures. The origins of Zen Buddhism can be traced back to Indian Buddhism, where samadhi – ‘a deepened state of meditation’ (Nagatomo, 2019) was the objective that was required to be mastered. This ultimately presents the intention of Japanese minimalism as being an ‘ode to emptiness, moral encouragement and a call for humility and self-realisation’ (Stevanovic, 2012) and emphasises how Japanese culture and Zen Buddhism has been interpreted within sacred interiors as an aesthetic representation of this culture, which will be substantiated in the following case study analysis.

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Countless dwellings have been recognised for their undeniable influence from Japanese culture, in an attempt to integrate the concept of simplicity and ‘Zen’ into westernised culture. This is seen clearly through the Schindler House, also known as Kings Road House, West Hollywood (1922), which encompasses attributes of an interpreted Japanese minimal aesthetic. The American architect, Rudolph Schindler (1887-1953), was highly influenced by the work of Frank Lloyd Wright (1867-1959), especially by his research and inspiration of Japanese culture and architecture (Almodovar-Melendo & Verdejo, 2014: 41). The most prominent features of this dwelling, in resemblance to the Japanese aesthetic, is how Schindler abandoned the ‘ordinary residential arrangement providing rooms for specialised purposes’, (Almodovar-Melendo & Verdejo, 2014: 42) as well as his integration of nature, which ‘not only limits access from the exterior, but also consolidates the privacy of these spaces’ (Almodovar-Melendo & Verdejo, 2014: 42). It was noted that Schindler’s intention of these arrangements was to limit to level of connectivity to nearby public areas as this was recognised as a ‘typical characteristic of Japanese houses’ (Almodovar-Melendo & Verdejo, 2014: 44). The overarching concept that subsequently drove Schindler’s architectural scheme was his focus on ‘spatial continuity between adjoining multifunctional spaces, thereby in turn established a close interior-exterior connection’ (Almodovar-Melendo & Verdejo, 2014: 43). This was implemented and utilised to promote an organic flow within the house, opposed to a series of individualised rooms. Schindler juxtaposed the traditional composition of an American house as he intentionally disguises multifunctional rooms that are mainly used for entertaining purposes, through storage facilities, leaving no indication of the space being utilised as a home (Almodovar-Melendo & Verdejo, 2014: 43). Materiality strongly contributes to the aesthetic as the seamlessness assists to ‘create an interrupted effect of coherence’, reinforcing how the ‘unbroken view adds to a visual unity, and thus, a visual silence’, as seen in figure 2.01 (Verhetsel & Pombo 2013: 34). Similar to the crux of the philosophy of Japanese culture and Zen Buddhism, minimalism has been renowned for its ability to ‘conceive absence, emptiness and nothingness as crucial conditions for imagination and authenticity’ (Verhetsel & Pombo 2013: 32), ultimately substantiating the parallels between these concepts, as seen through this dwelling.

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Figure 2.01. Image showing the bare interior of the Schindler House, West Hollywood (1922) as an interpretation of the Japanese aesthetic. The image shows how the seamless materiality contributes to the visual silence of the dwelling.

Modernist traits and influences that have risen as a result of this newly accessible Japanese culture, have been evident through the typology of church interiors, prior to the conception of minimalism as a phenomenon, reinforcing how contemporary influences have impacted the development of minimalism.

This is seen through the Robert F. Carr Memorial Chapel, commonly known as the IIT Chapel, Illinois (1952) as illustrated in figure 2.02 and designed by Ludwig Mies van der Rohe (1886-1969). This interior has been claimed to redefine the language of modern architecture through his perfected ideas of structure and portion, which defines this space (Perez, 2015). The plan itself is formed as a grid which provided a sense of order to the space, which is reinforced through the chosen materials of glass, steel and concrete, which were employed to define Mies van der Roheâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s interpretation of modernity (Perez, 2015). Mies van der Rohe was considered a highly influential figure in the modern movement and throughout the twentieth century as the modernist traits that were seen in his designs, can be seen to have parallels to minimalism, presented Mies van der Rohe a key figure in this movement (Stevanovic, 2011: 22). This emphasises how contemporary influences have contributed to the evolution of minimalism within sacred interiors.

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Figure 2.02. Image showing the exterior view of IIT Chapel, Illinois (1952), designed by Ludwig Mies van der Rohe (1886-1969)

Architectural theorists, Verhetsel and Pombo redefined minimalist architecture as they contend that it ’starts from the idea that a pure and simple interior space unfolds feelings of inner calmness and peace’ (Verhetsel & Pombo 2013: 34). This notion of inspiring tranquillity is seen through Villa Savoye, France (1929), which has been renowned for its ability to embody the essence of minimalism. FrenchSwiss architect, Le Corbusier (1887-1965), a known pioneer of post-modern architecture, introduced the concept of minimalism and post-modern architecture prior to its popularisation and formal articulation. Common minimalist conventions, such as the seamless integration of the landscape with the interior to evoke an emotional response and sense of connectivity, as well as the implementation of glass windows and walls, to encourage the open filtration of light, in Villa Savoye, as seen in figure 2.03, have been clearly executed within this interior. In accordance to these principles, the utilisation of blank surfaces is often employed as a technique to convey coherence and bareness, as seen in figure 2.04, and has been identified as a clear characteristic of minimalism (Vasilski & Nikolic, 2017: 334).

Villa Savoye, was a pivotal influence in the post-modernist movement as it has been recognised by architectural theorist, Malka Simon, to have successfully communicated Le Corbusier’s intention to express ‘timeless classicism through the language of architectural modernism’ (Simon, 2015).

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Figure 2.03. Image showing the interior of Villa Savoye, 1929, Le Corbusier, Poissy, France

With the influences of modernism and Japanese culture, minimalism emerged as a phenomenon during the late twentieth century, where it became a sought-after lifestyle (Vasilski & Nikolic, 2017: 343).

Minimalism initially gained traction in the higher-class population as it was received as a new opportunity to break away from the over-accumulation of unnecessary objects (Vasilski & Nikolic, 2017: 334), which was translated through the Modernist Revolt. Minimalism was a reaction against the notion of accumulating material possessions as it was claimed by architectural theorist, Dragana Vasilski, that by ‘filling living space with unnecessary objects, people had become victims of mass consumerism’ (Vasilski & Nikolic, 2017: 334). This ultimately stimulated a change in this ongoing cycle as there was an increased demand to live in simplified and reduced spaces.

Whilst the notion of living with less had become actively present during post-war modernism, the phenomenon of minimalism only stepped into the scope of architecture during the mid-1980s (Bertoni, 2002: 07). The declining desire to obtain material possessions translated as a way of living which popularised minimalism within westernised culture, emphasising that ‘minimalist architecture starts from the idea that a pure and simple interior space unfolds feelings of inner calmness and peace’ (Verhetsel & Pombo, 2013: 34). This desire for simplicity became apparent through architecture and was ultimately conceived through the decrease of ornamentation within spaces and a higher focus on the quality of construction and materials used (Verhetsel & Pombo, 2013: 31). This decrease of ornamentation resulted in higher levels of demand, and therefore availability, of higher quality materials that encompassed these minimal traits. These materials such as glass, concrete and steel, were recognised to assist in creating ‘simplified lines, flat and clean surfaces [which] replaced decorative plastics with simple and reduced design’ (Vasilski, 2017: 334), ultimately acting as the physical agents of minimalism. This in essence, denies minimalism as a trend as it emphasises how this contemporary influence has impacted the development of minimalism within sacred interiors (Vasilski & Nikolic, 2017: 334).

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Figure 2.04. Image showing the repetition of white and blank surfaces as a characteristic of minimalism within Villa Savoye, France (1929).

Architectural conventions that typically define a minimalist interior, have been evident through the Grundtvig Church, Denmark (1940), designed by, Peder Vilhelm Jensen Klint (1853-1930) and Kaare Klint (1888-1954). This sacred interior was noted as an amalgamation of architectural styles as the juxtaposing interior to the exterior illustrates numerous influences within the church. The verticality of the exterior brickwork showcases Grundtvig Church to embody classic Gothic architectural characteristics, whilst simultaneously abides by the minimalist aesthetic as the interior as seen in figure 2.05. This church is almost â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;entirely devoid of ornament; [as] the massive columns rise to pointed arches and ribbed vaults with little to no visual interruptionâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; (Fiederer, 2018), which details the implementation of minimalism. Whilst this church was designed and built prior to the establishment of minimalism and has not been exposed to any external influence of this ideology, undeniable parallels between the interior of this church and minimalism can be synthesised. Henceforth, reinstating the omnipresent nature of minimalism, which ultimately contradicts and denies minimalism as a superficial and 23

popularised art movement and emphasises how contemporary influences have shaped the development of minimalism within contemporary sacred interiors.

Figure 2.05. Interior view of the Grundtvig Church, Denmark (1940). The image illustrates how the repetition of materiality contributes to the minimalist aesthetic.

In summary, the second chapter of this dissertation discussed the rise of minimalism as a result of postwar modernism and explored its journey to westernisation during the nineteenth and twentieth century, ultimately creating a framework for the discussion of how minimalism developed within the architectural realm of interiors. The implementation of minimalism, as an extension and reinterpretation of Japanese culture was investigated, through the investigation of Zen Buddhism and how the application of these principles have been identified through the Schindler house. This chapter substantiated that the manifestation of minimalism initially appeared within contemporary interiors as a consequence to the Modernist Revolt and through the influence of Japanese culture. Minimalism was also defined in this chapter and it was explained that whilst minimalism gained traction during the nineteenth and twentieth century, it merely gained its name during this period as it was redefined and 24

interpreted as a response to the social condition. Ultimately, this chapter demonstrates how significant contemporary influences have morphed and shaped the development of minimalism within contemporary sacred interiors. The final chapter of the dissertation will explore precedent studies to further solidify how the theoretical framework provided in this chapter, and historical influences outlined in chapter one, have contributed to the evolution of minimalism within sacred interiors.

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Chapter Three: Case Studies of Contemporary Sacred Minimalist Interiors In recent years, there has been a significant increase in the levels of contemporary sacred interiors established within the minimalism realm (Vasilski & Nikolic, 2017: 336). This concluding chapter will analyse three precedent studies of sacred interiors as well as the minimalist design elements that have been utilised in the space. This will be undertaken through an analysis of architectural spatial features as well as gathering secondary scholarly sources. The analysis of architectural spatial features will involve an investigation of material choices, lighting strategies and the implementation of scale and the gathering of secondary scholarly sources will analyse published plans and images of the interiors, as well as commentary from the architects and design critics. This analysis of architectural books and articles will utilise the historical and contemporary framework that was discussed in chapters one and two to emphasise how these influences have informed the evolution of minimalism within sacred interiors. The first precedent study will look at the Saint Moritz Church in Germany, designed by John Pawson, to highlight how minimalism within this sacred interior provided a more significant value than merely just aesthetic. The second precedent study will focus on Church of the Light in Japan, designed

by Tadao Ando, to study the notion of how Japanese culture and Zen Buddhism has become westernised, therefore being utilising a method of implementing and communicating minimalism in an aim to achieve transcendence. The third and final precedent study will examine the Bruder Klaus Field Chapel and will look at how the architect, Peter Zumthor, implemented aspects of minimalism to draw similarities between this chapel and living a monastic life as a hermit. These sacred interiors have been chosen as they are all at different scales and different geographical locations, which emphasises the diversity of minimalism. The case studies were also selected as the architects that completed the works, Pawson, Ando and Zumthor, have been noted for their contribution to the development of minimalism (Bertoni, 2002: 11). This chapter seeks to demonstrate that several architects who substantially contributed to the development of minimalism within contemporary sacred interiors, implemented this aesthetic within this architectural typology to draw parallels between the historical and contemporary influences that were outlined in the previous chapters.

Saint Moritz Church, Augsburg, Germany (2007) Saint Moritz Church is a Catholic church located in Augsburg Germany and was originally built as a Romanesque basilica in 1019 and was rebuilt over a century later with the influence of Gothic style architecture in 1229. It was once again redeveloped, through a Baroque-style approach in 1714 (Schoof, 2013). British minimalist architect John Pawson (1949-), completed the latest redevelopment of the church in 2007 with the intention to maintain the rich history, whilst restoring the remaining structure that had been destroyed by bombs and fires during World War II (1939-1945). Pawson redesigned the function of the existing form, through a minimalist lens, to best support the liturgy as well as to illustrate 26

the evolving history of the church, without introducing any clashing components. This emphasises how the implementation of minimalism has the ability to create a space that is free from distraction and as a method of respecting the historical footprint of the church. Whilst the restoration of the church redefined functional elements, Pawson strived to ensure that all redevelopments served a distinct purpose, as being considerate of the historical significance of the sacred interior was at the forefront of all design decisions (Pawson, 2013). The floorplan of the interior, as seen in figure 3.01, and the interior itself, as seen in figure 3.02, is formed of a nave and is defined through its traditional Baroque-style clerestory arches.

The church floor is covered in beige Portuguese limestone tiles, which offers a smooth transition to soften the contrast between the dark-stained timber joinery in the choir stalls, as illustrated in figure 3.03. Public seating and the dark-stained joinery, which houses the pipe organ against the white walls, is evident in figure 3.04, which serves to draw attention to the front of the church and contribute to the ethereal atmosphere within the church.

Figure 3.01. Image showing the interior floorplan of the Saint Moritz Church

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Figure 3.02. Image showing the interior of Saint Moritz Church, the nave and the Baroque-style clerestory arches

Figure 3.03. Image showing the interior of Saint Moritz Church and the strong contrast between the white walls and dark-stained timber joinery in the church choir.

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Figure 3.04. Image showing the interior of Saint Moritz Church and the strong contrast between the white walls and the dark-stained timber joinery which houses the pipe organ

Figure 3.05 Image showing the interior of Saint Moritz Church and the religious symbols that have been placed in the lateral aisle.

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Whilst the implementation of minimalism within this church may seem to serve a purely aesthetic purpose, the historical framework provided in chapter one reinstates that parallels can be drawn between monasticism and iconoclasm within the redevelopment of Saint Moritz Church. The white walls, stripped of all ornamentation, serve to conceal the damage that the church had endured, and it is only through the clerestory arches embedded within the interior architecture itself that any form of its Baroque history is revealed. This emphasises Pawson’s implementation of minimalism as an interpretation of monastic traditions, as the renunciation of material aesthetics within the church illustrates the parallels of avoiding distraction to ensure a completely meditative space where one can devote themselves entirely to Christian worship. Pawson claimed that ‘clear simplicity has dimensions to it that go beyond the purely aesthetic’ (Pawson, 1996: 07), which he substantiated within Saint Moritz through lighting and a reduced material palette. The lighting strategy employed within Saint Moritz Church demonstrates a systematic approach, as it was claimed by Etherington, that it filters out direct sunlight and welcomes a ‘haze of diffused luminescence’ (Etherington, 2013). The religious and devotional symbols that have been placed in the lateral aisles, as seen in figure 3.05, in addition to the restraint of religious symbols from the centre aisle reveals parallels between this church and iconoclasm.

Whilst this church is operated under Catholicism and therefore cannot be completely void of religious symbols, the influence of modernism can be seen through the implementation of minimalism as Pawson deliberately placed the religious symbols in the side aisles of the church, as a method to void any form of distraction to shift the focus towards worship (Foges, 2014: 160). These modernist traits that have assisted with the interpretation of minimalism within this interior include the open floor plan, white interior walls and the use of timber. Therefore, this emphasises how the architectural design elements that Pawson implemented can be seen as an interpretation of monasticism, iconoclasm and modernism which emphasises how these historic influences have impacted the development of minimalism within sacred interiors. Similarly, the following case study will further reinforce how both historical and contemporary influences have impacted the development of minimalism within sacred interiors.

Church of the Light, Ibaraki, Japan (1999) Ibaraki Kasugaoka Church, most commonly known as Church of the Light, is a Protestant church located in Ibaraki, Japan and was completed in 1999 by Japanese minimalist architect, Tadao Ando (1941-). This church remains one of Ando’s signature architectural projects, as it has been acclaimed for his ability to integrate form with nature and to define space through the utilisation of voids and light (Richardson, 2004: 12-13). This precedent study was chosen as it has strong Japanese influences, which further supports the contemporary influences mentioned in chapter two. The floorplan of this chapel can be seen in figure 3.06. The interior or the church is defined by its minimal lighting strategy and material palette, as these architectural design elements assist in introducing a distinct contrast between light and shadows, therefore establishing a distinct meditative atmosphere (Silloway, 2004). Within the chapel, the most prominent source of light is brought into the space through the cross window which is 30

formed from a void in the architecture. The light that passes through this window provides an illusion that the density of the concrete appears weightless as the light appears to pierce through the solid mass, as seen in figure 3.07. The controlled injection of light that enters the church is contrasted with the materiality, as the dark timber flooring made from re-purposed scaffolding boards and the reinforced concrete, further supports the darkness and weight of the church, contributing to the contemplative atmosphere.

As discussed in chapter one, aspects of iconoclasm can be seen within Church of the Light as this church establishes itself as being iconoclastic as the only symbol of religious significance is formed from the void in the wall which forms a symbol of a cross. The cross forms a point of focus, which ultimately screens and directs the views to evade any form of distraction from the exterior, positioning the church as an extremely internalised meditative space. The use of reinforced concrete walls, in conjunction with the aesthetic influence of minimalism, illustrates the integration of western culture and Japanese architecture. Whilst this church is situated within Japan, parallels can be seen in the methodology that Ando adopted when integrating notions of Zen Buddhism and aspects of western culture (Stevanovic, 2011: 24). This ultimately perceives Zen Buddhism as merely contributing to the aesthetic value of the church, rather than recognising it as method to gain self-realisation which can heighten the human experience and trigger a deeper emotional and spiritual connection (Stevanovic, 2011: 25). This synthesises how the implementation of minimalism within sacred interiors has been reinterpreted as a physical representation of Zen Buddhism, encouraging users to think through abstraction. This illustrates how the relationship between minimalism and Zen Buddhism has been redefined as a consequence of being a product of the western world and as a means of integrating traditional Japanese architecture and culture (Stevanovic, 2011: 24). Similarly, the following case study will provide further evidence to illustrate how the theoretical framework provided in chapters one and two have assisted in the development of minimalism within sacred interiors.

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Figure 3.06. Image showing the interior floorplan of Church of the Light, Ibaraki, Japan (1999) (not to scale)

Figure 3.07. Image showing the interior of Church of the Light, Ibaraki, Japan (1999) and the light entering the church in the shape of a cross, which appears to cut through the concrete.

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Bruder Klaus Field Chapel, Mechernich, Germany (2007) The Bruder Klaus Field Chapel, as seen in figure 3.09, is a Catholic pilgrimage chapel, located in Mechernich, Germany, and was built in 2007. It was designed by Swiss architect Peter Zumthor (1943), who is known for his minimalist aesthetic. The floorplan of this chapel can be seen in figure 3.08.

This pilgrimage chapel has been chosen as a case study as the minimalist traits, implemented by Zumthor, can be seen to have strong connections with monasticism, which further supports the theoretical framework that was provided in chapter one. It has been claimed that the most remarkable aspect of the chapel lies within the construction itself (Svevien, 2011). All materials were sourced locally and the chapel itself was constructed by farmers that were local to the community, to honour the Saint Bruder Klaus of the 15th century (Svevien, 2011). The chapel was constructed as a series of processes which firstly involved the gathering of 112 locally sourced pine tree trunks, which were utilised to form a framing structure resembling a wigwam (Pallister, 2015). Architectural writer, Ariana Zilliacus, claimed that whilst there is a ‘stark contrast to the comparatively smooth angular façade’, the chapel, ‘despite its concrete surface and straight edges, does not stand out as brutal’ (Zilliacus, 2016).

This ultimately emphasises Zumthor’s intent of establishing the chapel as being a spiritual contemplative space through its ‘composure, durability, presence, and integrity with warmth and sensuousness’ (Svevien, 2011). After the framing structure was completed, individual layers of concrete, which was formed from local sand and gravel, were poured and rammed, 500mm thick to form a total of 24 layers. The verticality of the interior encourages the user to consistently shift their view upwards, emphasising the use of scale to create a sense of being engulfed and immersed within the chapel. The concrete, being held in place by steel tubes, were then removed to reveal small holes which brings natural light into the chapel. Once this had been set, the pine trunks were set ablaze, which left the interior as ‘a hollowed blackened cavity’, evident in figure 3.10 (Pallister, 2015). The scorched emptiness of the charred walls within the chapel is the only form of materiality used, reinforcing it as extremely minimal, with the addition of the molten lead flooring which completed the chapel. The combination of the two raw materials ultimately contributes to the ‘sombre and reflective feelings that becoming inevitable in one’s encounter’ (Svevien, 2011), therefore situating this chapel as ‘one of the most striking pieces of religious architecture to date’ (Svevien, 2011).

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Figure 3.08. Image showing the interior floorplan of the Bruder Klaus Field Chapel (Not to scale)

Figure 3.09. Image showing an exterior of the Bruder Klaus Field Chapel, (2007), and where it is situated within the landscape of Mechernich, Germany.

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Figure 3.10. Image showing the interior of the Bruder Klaus Field Chapel, (2007) and the final result after the pine tree trunk were set ablaze, which left the interior charred and hollow.

As the church is located within a remote field and requires the effect of a pilgrimage chapel, fundamental links can be drawn between the architectural conventions integrated throughout the Bruder Klaus Field Chapel, monasticism and living an ascetic life, which has been implemented through the aesthetic of minimalism. This is seen through the discussion in chapter one, where the notion of the hermit and living an ascetic life, similar to Anthony the Great (251AD-356AD), required one to remove themselves from common life in order to live in complete solitude whilst sacrificing material possessions and all aspects of luxury, in an endeavour to devote life entirely to spiritual work (Goswami, 2006: 1329). This decision of living as a hermit involved the acceptance of living in severe discomfort, travelling extreme distances and living amongst exposed climate elements in order to achieve a higher sense of connectivity with God and also a form of enlightenment through this process and prayer (Goswami, 2006: 1329). During the process of living as an ascetic life, the hermits would travel in solitude to reach a destination, that was exposed to the natural elements, where they could conduct spiritual practices.

The requirement of a journey in solitude can be seen to have similarities to the Bruder Klaus Chapel.

In addition, Zumthor designed the chapel to exclude any form of plumbing, bathrooms, running water and electricity (Svevien, 2011), in aim to draw parallels with living a monastic life to intensify the emotional response within this chapel. It can be noted that Zumthor implemented this notion of ensuring 35

that all users in this space must experience a glimpse of a pilgrimage life as a hermit, as the path to this private chapel requires one to travel a far distance, whilst being exposed to the natural elements. Once inside, the oculus which is the main source of light, as seen in figure 3.10, is completely exposed which demonstrates the inability to find refuge and comfort within this private chapel. This emphasises how this private chapel has been interpreted as a representation of minimalism and therefore, emphasises how the theoretical framework provided in the previous chapters have contributed to the evolution of minimalism within sacred interiors.

In conclusion, this chapter discussed three case studies which embodied the theoretical research that was discussed in the previous two chapters. This aided in the understanding of how historical aspects of monasticism, iconoclasm, asceticism, together with contemporary influences such as Japanese culture and Zen Buddhism, can shape the interpretation of minimalism within sacred interiors. The architects detailed in this chapter, John Pawson, Tadao Ando and Peter Zumthor, have all been recognised as pioneers in the articulation of minimalism (Bertoni, 2002: 11). Through the series of precedent studies that were provided and analysed in this chapter, it becomes evident that parallels between contemporary sacred interiors and historical and contemporary influences, as mentioned in chapter one and two, can be drawn together. The first precedent study of the Saint Moritz Church in Germany showcased how John Pawson implemented aspects of monasticism and iconoclasm as a tribute to the church’s history, as well as highlighting Pawson’s intention of illustrating that the power of minimalism stretches far beyond an aesthetic. The second precent study of Tadao Ando’s Church of the Light demonstrated how Japanese culture and Zen Buddhism has been westernised as it has been utilised as a method of communicating minimalism. The third precedent study examined Peter Zumthor’s Bruder Klaus Field Chapel and how it analysed how this minimalist chapel could be interpreted as having significant similarities to monasticism and living as a hermit. Ultimately, this chapter explored three sacred minimalist interiors which drew connections between these case studies and the theoretical research that was discussed in chapters one and two, to emphasise how these influences contributed to the evolution of minimalism within sacred interiors.

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Conclusion Despite the critiques and assessments that minimalism within sacred interiors have received, this architectural typology has continually been acknowledged by academics as a highly significant and influential space. This dissertation provided a contextual framework of sacred interiors, as well as an analysis of three contemporary case studies, which synthesised how historical and contemporary influences have impacted the evolution of minimalism within sacred interiors.

The first chapter of this dissertation established a contextual framework that illustrated the impact historical influences had on the development and interpretation of minimalism within sacred interiors.

The chapter began by introducing concepts that explored how minimalism could be seen before its conception in contemporary society. The first concept that was introduced was monasticism and a brief overview of this was provided which drew parallels between this notion and living a minimalist life.

This was explored further through the lens of Saint Anthony the Great, Saint Basil the Great and Paul of Thebes, who were the first known monks to depart from their common routine in order to live an ascetic life, which encompassed similar traits to living as a minimalist. The following concept that was introduced was the notion of iconoclasm which substantiated how this rebuke of religious symbols had similarities to traits of minimalism to emphasise how this historical influence had an impact on the conception of minimalism within contemporary society. The discussion then shifted to explore concepts of aestheticism and asceticism which emphasised how the shift from large amounts of ornamentation to the complete strip of ornamentation could be interpreted as a trait of minimalism. Ultimately, this first chapter explored how historical influences such as monasticism, iconoclasm and living an ascetic life could be seen to have parallels with minimalism, emphasising how these influences contributed to the evolution of minimalism within contemporary sacred interiors.

Chapter two discussed various theories in relation to minimalism within contemporary sacred interiors to further support the case study analysis in chapter three. Minimalism was defined in this chapter, and together with the affirmed historical framework provided in chapter one, explored the evolution of minimalism within contemporary sacred interiors. An analysis that the impact post-war modernism had on the interpretation of minimalism within the twentieth century was also conducted. A series of case studies were briefly analysed, such as Le Corbusierâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Villa Savoye, which provided a framework that emphasised that minimalism, as a product of post-war modernism, arose during this period as a rebuke against the rise of mass-consumption and accumulation of materialistic possessions. The Grundtvig Church in Demark was also analysed which illustrated how the architects, implemented architectural conventions with minimalist traits to eradicate the concept of minimalism as an art movement. A brief 37

history of Japanese culture and Zen Buddhism were also explored, as well as an analysis of Rudolph Schindlerâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Schindler House, West Hollywood, which emphasised how Japanese culture has been reinterpreted as a design aesthetic to replication notions of Zen Buddhism into western culture and architecture. This chapter ultimately provided a framework to demonstrate how minimalism developed within the architectural realm of sacred interiors within twenty and twenty-first century as a result of these influences. In addition. The historical influences that were outlined in chapter one also assisted in the development and interpretation of minimalism within contemporary sacred interiors. These concepts were further reinforced in chapter three through the implementation of a series of case studies.

Chapter three of this dissertation utilised a theoretical framework that was discussed in the two previous chapters. This framework provided an abundance of evidence which proved the hypothesis that historical influences such as aspects of monasticism, iconoclasm and living an ascetic life, together with contemporary influences such as the rise of minimalism as a product of post-war modernism and the influence of Japanese culture, have shaped the evolution of minimalism within sacred interiors. The three case studies that were analysed included the Saint Moritz Church, designed by John Pawson, followed by Tadao Andoâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Church of the Light and finally Peter Zumthorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Bruder Klaus Chapel. The spatial analysis conducted on these three case studies, focused on lighting strategies, materiality decisions as well as scale. The spatial analysis, combined with an understanding of the modernist traits that Pawson, Ando and Zumthor possess, substantiated how minimalist traits were implemented by these architects as an interpretation of these influences, to emphasise how these minimalist spaces were influenced by these historical and contemporary factors. All three of these precedent studies served to demonstrate that minimalism has been developed as an interpretation of the historical and contemporary research that was previously mentioned in chapter one and two, which emphasised how these influences informed and shaped the evolution of minimalism within sacred interiors.

Reflecting on this dissertation, there is an opportunity for future research to be explored to further investigate the impact that minimalism within a sacred interior has on the effect on the user. Future research focused solely on the impact minimalism within sacred interiors has on the user and how this is able to behaviourally impact the user, may provide further insights into the power and effectiveness of architectural conventions. In order for this dissertation to be as specific as it was, as addition with time constraints, an exploration of this broader aspect of research was not able to be explored, however, it is still available for further evaluation. Therefore, the research conducted in this dissertation is not conclusive as there are avenues available for further research to be conducted. In summary, this dissertation highlighted the evolution of minimalism within sacred interiors through the lens of historical and contemporary influences which provided a framework for this development.

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