Resilience at Farm & Wilderness: An Ecological Study (Winter Project) by The Conway School

Farm & Wilderness initiated a project with the Conway School to gain an understanding of how to continue tending to and conserving the vast array of sensitive habitats and natural communities found on their property. The organization understands that the climate will continue to change and shift, and recognizes the importance of responding to and working with these environmental changes. This project examines how the landholdings of Farm & Wilderness relate to the regional ecosystem and makes suggestions for a climate resilient future. Forest and wetland communities are examined as well as wildlife movement and habitat. Future practices are recommended in this project, as the organization moves forward being thoughtful and dynamic stewards of the land.

Resilience at Farm & Wilderness An Ecological Study

Caitlin Camilliere | Veronica Chudik | Elena Zachary The Conway School | Winter 2022

Resilience at Farm & Wilderness An Ecological Study

Prepared for Farm & Wilderness Conservation

Caitlin Camilliere | Veronica Chudik | Elena Zachary The Conway School Winter 2022

Photo: Carter Clark, F&W Camps

Acknowledgements We would like to thank Farm & Wilderness for their incredible support during our research. Many people contributed to the completion of this project and were generous with their time and knowledge; Kelly Beerman and Jay Kullman were instrumental in providing material and information that shaped the project, as well as Jon McCann of the Mount Holly Conservation Trust and Pete Fellows of the Two Rivers Ottauquechee Regional Commission. Forester Silos Roberts carefully explained Farm & Wilderness’ timber harvesting practices, and Colene Reed shared the camps’ organic farming practices. The board of trustees asked us great questions and showed us the future Farm & Wilderness envisions. Todd Menees, Tim Stout, Hannah Dallas, Brett Engstrom, and members of various Vermont state departments generously offered their time to us as well. We are very thankful for the enthusiasm and encouragement from all who helped us with this project. The faculty at the Conway School guided us through the process of this project and their careful edits and revisions were instrumental. We would like to thank our parents for their support and our fellow students for their genuine kindness and good cheer. Thank you also to Susan Zachary and Kelly Beerman, whose edits contributed to the final document.

TABLE OF CONTENTS 1

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

INTRODUCTION 8 Orienting Maps 11 Project Overview 12 Stakeholders

REGIONAL CONTEXT 16 Plymouth | Early Settlers & Industry 19 Traditional Cultural Landscape | The Abenaki People 20

Demographics | Covid & Climate Migrants

21 Conservation Status 22

Climate Change

ECOLOGY & CURRENT PRACTICES 28

Geology

Forest Ecology

Watershed & Water Quality

Wildlife Movement & Habitat

76 Outdoor Recreation 82 Farm & Camp Practices

RECOMMENDATIONS 82

Timber Harvesting & Forest Health

Wetlands & Watershed

Wildlife Movement & Habitat

100 Outdoor Recreation 102 Farm & Camp Practices

BIBLIOGRAPHY

RESOURCES

Photo: E. Zachary

Executive Summary Farm & Wilderness is a nonprofit summer camp and conservation organization located in the towns of Plymouth and Mount Holly, Vermont. The organization has been working to connect people to the natural world since its inception in 1939. Partnered with a sister conservation organization, the Ninevah Foundation, the organizations together have conserved over 4,500 acres of forestland in the Green Mountains of Southern Vermont, including the shorelines of two waterbodies, Woodward Reservoir and Lake Ninevah. Concern for the vast array of sensitive habitats stewarded by Farm & Wilderness led the organization to initiate a project with the Conway School. The project examines how the landholdings of Farm & Wilderness relate to the regional ecosystem and makes suggestions for a climate resilient future. When resiliency is defined as the ability to retain function in the face of stressors, it is important to understand that although large changes may be on the horizon, the basic ecosystem functions can continue in an altered or shifted manner. The Farm & Wilderness landholdings are positioned within a string of conserved properties, both publicly and privately held, that form a critical wildlife connectivity corridor between the southern and northern portions of the Green Mountain National Forest. This connectivity will be especially important as development pressures and climate change place greater stress on the flora and fauna of the region. Maintaining wildlife connectivity corridors allows for the movement and migration of species as they shift northward in response to warming temperatures. With 99% tree cover on the property, climate change will impact the forest communities at Farm & Wilderness; habitat suitability for tree species will shift northward faster than trees can naturally migrate northward. Assisted migration may be appropriate where forest disturbance is predicted from invasive insect or storm damage. Within the predominantly granitic bedrock of the Green Mountain range, a small sliver of dolomitic bedrock underlies Woodward Reservoir, enriching the soil and providing growing conditions favored by several plant species rare or unusual to this area. The property sits at near the top of two separate sub-basins within Vermont watershed Basin 10, which joins the

Connecticut River. Many small upland streams flow from the higher elevations of the property before flowing into the Black River and the Ottauquechee River. The protection of these upland streams is important to the downstream health of larger rivers and the communities that depend on them. Farm & Wilderness keeps these upland areas forested, which helps slow and filter water as it flows through the landscape. Anticipated increases in human population and increased interest in outdoor recreation are likely to create higher demand for trails in the region and within Farm & Wilderness land. With publicly accessible trails on much of the property, trail monitoring and maintenance will be important as use increases. There are thousands of acres around Lake Ninevah that have no trails at all; retaining this wilderness character is valuable to wildlife species that require uninterrupted blocks of forest with no human interaction. On the other hand, providing public access to parts of the property is one of Farm & Wilderness’ goals. Balancing these needs is important as the organization continues its conservation efforts. Approximately 25 acres of the property are farm and pasture land where greenhouses, livestock pastures, and vegetable gardens contribute to food and fiber needs of the camps. Other sustainable operations include composting all food waste on-site, solar panels that meet the camps’ electrical needs, and composting toilets as the majority of camp bathrooms. The Farm and Wilderness Foundation is rooted in a long history of careful land stewardship, conservation, and recreation. The common thread that links all of our recommendations is fostering connections that can support Farm & Wilderness’ goals and those of other land conservation organizations. Our recommendations include creating an updated longrange forest management plan, continuing stewardship practices at the lakes, inventorying and making improvements to already existing trails, working with neighbors to coordinate conservation efforts, and connecting with research institutions that may become partners in studying and furthering the conservation goals of Farm & Wilderness. These recommendations aim to further the organization’s efforts to be thoughtful and dynamic stewards in a changing climate.

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INTRODUCTION

Farm & Wilderness is a nonprofit summer camp and conservation organization located in the towns of Plymouth and Mount Holly, Vermont. The organization has been connecting people with the natural world since its inception in 1939. The visionaries of Farm & Wilderness, Susan H. Webb and her husband Kenneth Webb, dreamed of creating a camp where environmental education and wilderness training were accessible to all children, regardless of economic or social background. Over the years, thousands of children from the local community and beyond have benefitted physically, emotionally, and spiritually from their summers spent at Farm & Wilderness. The organization’s mission to connect children with nature through unplugged “simple living, organic farming, and community service,” has been implemented through many conservation projects. Over several decades Farm & Wilderness has grown as an organization and developed partnerships to expand beyond summer camp programming. Today, the Farm & Wilderness Foundation summer camp organization is in affiliation with its sister organization, Ninevah Foundation, a nonprofit

conservation organization. This affiliation was built over several decades of partnered work through land conservation efforts. Together Farm & Wilderness and Ninevah Foundation have conserved over 4,500 acres of Vermont’s biodiverse forests, wetlands, lakes, and countless wildlife habitats in the town of Plymouth and Mount Holly. Starting with a little more than one hundred acres on the shores of Woodward Reservoir and an initial summer camp enrollment of 28 boys in 1939, Farm & Wilderness now consists of eight separate summer camp sites, each with a different focus, serving the needs and varied interests of children and teens aged four to seventeen. Four of the camps dot the eastern shore of Woodward Reservoir in Plymouth, Vermont, including one camp focused on farming. Eleven miles south, three camps are located close to Lake Ninevah in Mount Holly, Vermont, that focus on remote wilderness education. The eighth camp is an expedition hiking camp which does not have a location with cabins. All camps continue to follow Webb’s mission to connect people with nature through cooperation and respect for the natural environment.

In the 1960s, several members of the Farm & Wilderness community joined together to purchase a tract of land on the eastern shore of Lake Ninevah, 11 miles south of the original camp at Woodward Reservoir. They formed the Wilderness Corporation and continued to purchase nearby land to protect it from development. In 1995 the corporation became a nonprofit organization and was renamed the Ninevah Foundation, and the majority of their land was put into permanent protection through the Forest Legacy program. The Ninevah Foundation continued to share many values and goals with Farm & Wilderness and in 2018 the long-time partnership was formalized when the two nonprofits joined together to share a board of trustees and several staff members. Now the two organizations work in tandem to protect the ecologically critical landscape that connects the northern and southern sections of the Green Mountain National Forest.

Farm & Wilderness property includes over 4,500 acres of land divided into two sections: to the north, at the shores of Woodward Reservoir, a tract of 604 acres is referred to in this document as the ‘Woodward Area’; to the south, a much larger tract of nearly 3,945 acres near Lake Ninevah is referred to as the ‘Ninevah Area’. The portions of the property under Forest Legacy easement are publicly accessible through more than 20 miles of hiking and cross-country skiing trails. The areas surrounding the summer camps are private and do not include public trails.

In early 2022, Farm & Wilderness and the Ninevah Foundation further combined their efforts by creating Farm & Wilderness Conservation to carry out the conservation arm of the organizations. Farm & Wilderness Conservation will continue the work of conserving natural resources; teaching people of all ages about wildlife, forests, wilderness skills, and sustainable farming practices; and providing outdoor adventures for all who visit.

Introduction |

OVERVIEW OF PROPERTIES - 4,613 ACRES

WOODWARD AREA Smith Peak 3,204’

Woodward Reservoir

Rt .1 00

Burnt Mountain 2,804’

Wilderness Ridge 2,200’

Bear Mountain 3,088’ Salt Ash Mountain 3,286’

Lake Ninevah

NINEVAH AREA

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State Forest

Farm & Wilderness Property

WOODWARD AREA - 620 ACRES

Main Entrance Camps Rt. 10 0

rd wa r o d vo i Wo eser R

Wilderness Ridge 2,200’ Tamarack Farm

State Forest

Orienting Maps |

Farm & Wilderness Property

NINEVAH AREA - 3,955 ACRES

Bear Mountain 3,088’

Salt Ash Mountain 3,286’

Camps

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State Forest

Farm & Wilderness Property

Project Overview As the climate changes, concern for the vast array of sensitive habitats stewarded by Farm & Wilderness led the organization to initiate a project with the Conway School. This study aims to help Farm and Wilderness better understand the role of its properties in the regional ecosystem and landscape conservation efforts. This report presents a broad-scale analysis of the ecological resources of both Farm & Wilderness landholdings and of the region; possible partnership opportunities with other agencies and organizations; and recommended strategies for increasing climate resilience in the region.

1. Create a document exploring how sensitive

landscapes, wildlife habitat corridors, watershed management, and invasive aquatic and terrestrial species relate to climate change, and make recommendations to increase climate resiliency on the property.

2. Identify how Farm & Wilderness could improve practices to support water quality and prepare for flooding issues that arise with climate change.

3. Identify ways that Farm & Wilderness lands can support the work of local and regional land-based agencies and nonprofits.

4. Analyze how Farm & Wilderness properties can continue providing safe public recreation while also protecting wildlife and natural communities in a changing climate.

Section Title |

STAKEHOLDERS A stakeholder is any person, place, or system that has a stake in the outcome of a project or organization’s practices. Farm & Wilderness stakeholders include conservation professionals from the state and region, nonprofit organizations with similar missions, public agencies that serve the region, local tribal communities, and people who live in surrounding towns. The Farm & Wilderness trustees, employees, and past, current, and future campers and other outdoor enthusiasts are also stakeholders. How Farm & Wilderness chooses to move forward with choices regarding conservation and land management will directly influence the land and all who enjoy it, including: • • • • • •

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• • • • • • • • • •

Local and regional community members Past, present, and future summer campers Local business owners Wilderness Community Inc Catamount Trail Association Two Rivers-Ottauquechee Regional Commission Sustainable Woodstock Local Indigenous tribes Northam Forest Carbon Vermont Fish & Wildlife Vermont Forests, Parks & Recreation Vermont Agency of Natural Resources Mount Holly Conservation Commission Mount Holly Conservation Trust Vermont Association of Snow Travelers The flora and fauna residing in the region

On February 10, 2022, the Conway team held an online Zoom meeting for stakeholders. Due to Covid, it was not possible to hold an in-person meeting. A positive outcome of holding a virtual event was the increased accessibility for people who otherwise may not have been able to meet in person. About thirty people joined and watched a short presentation offered by the Conway team. Attendees then participated in three small breakout sessions led by the Conway team and Kelly Beerman, the conservation director of Farm & Wilderness. The questions for the breakout sessions focused mainly on how the public interacts with Farm & Wilderness landholdings. Other topics of discussion were raised by the participants during the breakout sessions. These included the water quality of the lakes in Plymouth, and specifically the impacts Tropical Storm Irene had on the community. Other questions included access to trails and lakes, forest management practices, invasive species and climate change, and curiosity around increasing human population. Each person at the meeting expressed a desire to know how they could help and what they could be doing as a collective community to adapt to climate change. This community understands the beauty of the place in which they live, and believes that advocating for the natural environment is an important step toward mitigating the impacts of climate change. Farm & Wilderness hopes to share the organization’s knowledge and love for the natural world with many more people.

Introduction |

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REGIONAL CONTEXT The state of Vermont is known for its mountain towns, resourceful and friendly citizens, and vast forested land. The state is committed to protecting its wild landscapes for future generations.

Photo: KP McFarland

Plymouth | Early Settlers and Industry

The town of Plymouth, Vermont holds natural beauty that is iconic to the state. Scenic lakes, high mountain peaks, and lush, green forests give the town of Plymouth a feeling of wildness that draws people to it from near and far. European settlers first came to this area in the 1700s. The town was chartered in 1761 as Salt Ash, and later as Plymouth in 1797(Ward, 1983). Plymouth is located above a band of dolomitic limestone, which creates soils rich in minerals not often found in other parts of the state. The rich soils are excellent for supporting farming and agriculture, something nearly every settler practiced.

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The bedrock and the surficial deposits left by glaciers have had a strong impact on the history of this landscape. The manufacturing of lime was a booming industry for the town starting in the 1830s (Ward, 1983). Early settlement structures such as rock walls in the forest and lime kilns found near Farm & Wilderness are evidence that the land was once cleared for agriculture and the timber used for lime kilns. The converted charcoal was used in iron and copper production, which were also mined in the area. Due to the unique bedrock, the town benefitted from successful mining and limestone manufacturing industries (Thompson, 18).

Jay Kullman Lime kiln found on Farm Photo: & Wilderness land Photo credit: Farm & Wilderness

Opposite page: A lime kiln found on Farm & Wilderness land toward the southeast area of the property, very close to the rich, dolomitic limestone soils. Left: A hand-drawn map from 1995 showing the location of a lime kiln near Woodward Reservoir on Farm & Wilderness land.

Traditional Cultural Landscape | The Abenaki people The Abenaki people have had a permanent and continuous presence in this region for over 12,000 years. Eugene Rich, the co-chair of the Missisquoi Abenaki Tribal Council, explains, “There’s never been a time when this tribe wasn’t here. There is a time in which we weren’t talked about. We didn’t talk about ourselves. And people forget.” (Evancie, VPR,What Is The Status Of The Abenaki Native Americans In Vermont Today?).

Source: The chiefs of each tribe, Frederick M. Wiseman, and Kris Stepenuck. Design edits only: Lauren Sopher (Sopher, 2019).

Regional Context |

In the report, “The Greensboro Bend PLACE program & Socially Just Conservation,” Lauren Sopher highlights Abenaki voices by summarizing Frederick M. Wiseman’s accounts in his book, The Voice of the Dawn: An Autohistory of the Abenaki Nation. Dr. Wiseman is an Abenaki Tribal Council member and the Director of the Abenaki Tribal Museum and Cultural Center in Vermont. His book is the first to be written about Abenaki history and culture from an Abenaki perspective, and it draws from family knowledge and the remembered wisdom of the community. Lauren Sopher summarizes the history of the indigenous people as told by Dr. Wisemen. The time-line on the next page is an incomplete account of that history that specifically highlights how the first peoples interacted with the land they inhabited.

Traditional Cultural Landscape | The Abenaki people

13,000-10,000 THE YEARS OF THE MAMMOTH [ADEBASKEDON]

Living in dispersed groups, the ancestors of the Abenaki people known as “The Oldest Ones” hunted small and medium sized game and followed terrestrial and aquatic life throughout the landscape on a yearly cycle. Plants and tubers also supplemented their diet. At this point, the landscape was a tundra made up of grasses, lichens, sedges, and small shrubs such as sata blueberry and kanosasiz dwarf willow. Around 11,000 years ago, it began to transition to include maskwamozi (birch), kokokhoakw (fir), ossggakw (poplar), and mskak (spruce). Over time, streams were populated by wdopiak (alders) and kanosasak (willows), and the land transitioned to a woodland composed of conifers, mahlawks (ash), and senomozi (sugar maple) (Sopher, 2019).

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As the climate started to warm and become drier, the woodlands changed to include pagȏn (butternut) and watsilmezi (white oak). “The ancestors of the Abenaki lived in smaller, seasonal camps in order to easily hunt in the uplands and fish along rivers” (Sopher, 2019).

Tools made of wood, bone, metal and stone allowed for further expansion through waterways and on land, and trading between tribes increased. Family and village life became larger and more complex. “Villages were centered around rich alluvial river valleys, such as Nonnigonikon Winooskik (the Winooski Site, near Burlington, Vermont)” (Sopher, 2019)

10,000-6,500 THE YEARS OF THE MOOSE [MOZ]

6,500-1,000 THE YEARS OF THE LOG SHIPS

1600-1820 THE YEARS OF THE BEAVER

1970-PRESENT

[TAMAKWA]

As settlers started to invade the land, they began to clear the forest for large-scale agriculture and created a turbulent time for the Abenaki people. In the words of Frederick Wiseman, “Our respect for conservation and game animals was challenged for the first time in scores of generations. To survive in a changing world, we could not refuse the new technology, no matter what the environmental consequences. For our neighbors, who looked upon our hunting territories with newly greedy eyes, were themselves acquiring new weapons’ technologies against which we would be helpless.” (Sopher, 2019)

Agriculture with a focus on skamon (corn), adbakwa (beans: red and kidney), wassawas (squashes: acorn, butternut, pumpkin, and summer squash), Jerusalem artichokes, and odamo (tobacco) became part of Abenaki society (Sopher, 2019).

1,000-400

[SKAMON]

In Vermont, farm production peaked in 1870 with about 75% of the land cleared for agriculture and pasture. Vermont became the world’s largest exporter of wool, but without tree cover, land began to erode and the streams filled with silt (Thompson, 2000). By the early 1900s the agrarian way of life of the settlers had started to change, and trees like white pine, white and yellow birch, sugar maple and poplar began to reclaim the abandoned agricultural lands. Abenaki culture and customs persisted throughout the region, but these years were the last of total sovereignty for the Abenaki people (Sopher, 2019).

1820-1970 THE YEARS OF THE FOX [WAUKWESES] Photo: Tim Stout

Section Title |

THE YEARS OF THE CORN

Most of the forests that exist today are young due to the clearing by European settlers of old-growth forests for agricultural lands that began in the 1600s. The landscape today is a reflection of the history that took place with the most dramatic changes occurring in the 250 years after the settlers arrived. It was not until 2011 that the state of Vermont started to officially recognize the tribes that are living in Vermont today. In 2011, the state recognized the Elnu Tribe of the Abenaki and Nulhegan Band of the Coosuk Abenaki Nation, and in 2012 it recognized the Abenaki Nation of Missisquoi and the Koasek Traditional Band of the Koos Abenaki Nation. The Elnu Tribe of the Abenaki people have their traditional territory in southern Vermont and are living there to this day (VPR).

Demographics | Covid and Climate Migrants With a current population of 643,500, Vermont is the second least-populous state after Wyoming (Schleicher, 2019). Farm & Wilderness is located in Windsor County whose current population is 57,753, and is mostly white and between the ages of 55 to 74 years old (census.gov). See Figure 1 below. In 2018, the state launched the Stay-to-Stay Initiative, a program designed to help make relocating to Vermont attractive to younger people. This was launched as an effort to help boost Vermont’s population diversity (governor.vt.gov).

“Destination Vermont: The State Sees an Increase in Newcomers Amid the Pandemic” - US News

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Two years later, in 2020, the Covid pandemic arrived in the United States. The pandemic changed the daily lives and routines of millions of people. Many people moved out of crowded cities and into more suburban or rural areas. Vermont noticed an increase in people moving to the state during this time. The quiet living, outdoor recreation opportunities and access, and welcoming communities attracted new residents from all over the country.

Figure 1: Windsor County household demographics (VermontHousingData.org)

“Fave little state: Climate Migrants From Around America Are Seeking Refuge in Vermont”

- Seven Days VT

Another way that Vermont is seeing its population rise is from an influx of climate migrants. Climate migrants are people who move locations due to uninhabitable climate conditions. In many locations in America, the climate is getting hotter and drier, causing more devastating wildfires. In New England, the climate is getting warmer and wetter, and is experiencing increased flooding and rainstorms (Betts, 2017). The climate in New England appeals to many, and an influx of residents from various parts of the country are moving to states like Vermont. See Figure 3 below.

Figure 3: Precipitation rankings nationwide in 2011. Vermont had a record year and received over 50 inches of precipitation and experienced two severe flood events. (Betts, 2017)

Conservation Status Much of Farm & Wilderness’ property is held in the Forest Legacy conservation easement program, a national program that uses federal funding to enable states to purchase development rights to a property while the ownership of the land remains in private hands. The Forest Legacy program arose out of concern that private landowners were facing mounting economic pressures to convert their forestlands to other uses. The program serves to protect ecologically significant forests from development or fragmentation while continuing to allow timber harvesting, hunting, fishing, and recreational activities. By enrolling the majority of their property in the Forest Legacy program, Farm & Wilderness has guaranteed that the property will remain conserved and undeveloped in perpetuity, even if the property ownership were to change. Several neighbors also have conservation easements on their land through Forest Legacy, and together with Coolidge State Forest, Okemo State Forest, and Green Mountain National forest, this forms a significant block of permanently conserved land along the Green Mountains. The Forest Legacy program stipulates that all enrolled land allows public access for recreation. Details about the types of allowed uses (i.e. motorized or mechanized recreation, horseback riding) differ between properties and the agreements drafted when they entered the program. At Farm & Wilderness properties, all land in Forest Legacy allows for public trail use, hunting, and timber harvesting.

Permanently Conserved Land Farm & Wilderness Property

Permanently conserved land, both privately and publicly held, is shown in green. Farm & Wilderness property forms a critical connection with neighboring conserved properties.

Regional Context |

Of the 604 acres at the Woodward Area, 444 acres are enrolled in the Forest Legacy program. The remaining 106 acres flank Woodward Reservoir, where four of the camps, the farm, and offices are located. At the Ninevah Area, 3,544 acres are under Forest Legacy easement, but the land surrounding the three summer camps located there is excluded. All excluded portions of the property are for private use; public trails are only on the Forest Legacy easements.

PERMANENTLY CONSERVED LAND

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Climate Change

Climate change in New England is projected to increase temperatures, alter seasonal patterns, and bring more frequent extreme weather events. More frost-free days annually and warmer temperatures in both the summer and the winter have already extended the growing season. In Vermont, the growing season has increased by four days per decade for the past four decades. In the Northern Forest states (Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, and New York), the average temperature in the month of December has increased by 4.6 °F between the 1980s and the 2010s (Berry et al., 2019). Average annual precipitation in New England has increased by nine percent, or 3.7 inches, in the last 100 years (Huntington et al., 2009), but periods of drought have also increased, creating drier growing conditions in the summer.

Photo: Captured Winter

Climate Resiliency The adaptive capacity to anticipate, prepare for, and recover from climaterelated stressors and disturbances while maintaining function.

WARMING TEMPERATURES

Areas that are driven by seasonallydependent tourism will see continued unpredictability from climate change impacts. In the Northeast, winters have warmed three times faster than summers have, deeply affecting the ecosystem and human activities surrounding the winter season. Wintertime logging, which requires frozen ground for operation, will be reduced to fewer days per season. Increases in winter precipitation falling as rain rather than snow are already experienced, impacting the snowsport industry.

Some projection models predict that annual temperatures in the Northeast could increase by 5.2 °F under the low emissions scenario or by 9.5 °F under the high emissions scenario by the end of the century (Hayhoe et al., 2007). Warming winter temperatures have broad implications for the region, including fewer days of frozen ground, changes in soil fungi composition, earlier leaf-out in the spring, longer growing seasons, and fewer pests dying in the winter cold. Warmer winters allow for increases in insect populations, with implications for forest health due to pests like emerald ash borer, and hemlock woolly adelgid. Moose, an icon of the wilderness of New England, are experiencing increased mortality from ticks and other parasitic infections that flourish in warmer conditions. As warm spring temperatures arrive earlier and earlier, plants respond with earlier blooming and leaf-out. This results in plants being more susceptible to cold snaps later in spring, especially

Future projections of increased temperature in Vermont. The climate of Vermont could be similar to that of Northwest Georgia by 2070 (Betts, 2017). .

fruit trees and other earlyblooming agricultural crops. Some native plants are not as quick to adapt to earlier warm temperatures, and are out-competed by invasive plant species that leaf out earlier (Maynard-Bean et al., 2020). Some species of plants are more adaptable and will have a higher likelihood of survival compared to other plants which may not be able to tolerate these changes as quickly (Vermont Fish & Wildlife Department 2015).

Increasing freeze-thaw and flooding events will create muddier conditions on trails and roads. Vermont Forests, Parks and Recreation monitors trail conditions on state lands and will close trails temporarily to outdoor enthusiasts if conditions are not suitable. With possible higher incidences of muddy trails throughout the year, different approaches to maintaining trail integrity and structure may need to be considered. Trail erosion and damage to forest flora and fauna may occur if muddy trails are not cared for properly.

Regional Context |

Historically, Windsor County has averaged 65 days per year of days with a high temperature below freezing. Under a low emissions scenario, that may decrease to an average of 37 days with a maximum temperature below freezing by 2090. Under a high emissions scenario, that could decrease to just 23 days annually by 2090 (U.S. Climate Resilience Toolkit Climate Explorer,2021).

Historical Changes to Timing of Snowmelt-Related Streamflow 1960-2014

National Climate Assessment report, 2019 Earlier snowmelt causes earlier increased stream-flow, with a cascading effect on stream ecology. The map above shows the shift to earlier spring stream-flow between 1960 and 2014 (National Climate Assessment, 2018).

PRECIPITATION INCREASE

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By the year 2100, average annual precipitation is projected to increase by seven percent (low emissions scenario) to 14 percent (high emissions scenario), with the greatest increase falling in the winter. More winter precipitation is likely to fall as rain rather than snow. The number of days with snow on the ground could be halved by the end of the century in some parts of New England (Hayhoe et al. 2007).

Updates to building codes and design standards when building or replacing existing infrastructure can help adapt these structures and systems to increase climate resiliency by accounting for an

increase in precipitation. Increased occurrence of intense precipitation events will likely cause greater risk of flooding in inland valleys where human settlement is often concentrated. Cities will suffer from high temperature extremes and reduced air quality. People living in rural areas with fewer routes between towns are particularly vulnerable to extreme events. Rural towns are easily isolated by damaged roadways and do not have the infrastructure systems in place that larger communities do. Tropical Storm Irene was an acute example of how a large precipitation event can wreak havoc on the rural communities of Vermont. With an anticipated increase of similar

extreme weather events, the New England region will need to continue its effort to implement green infrastructure and upgrade existing flood infrastructure. The town of Plymouth has been working to upgrade culverts in order to better mitigate flooding.

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ECOLOGICAL CONDITIONS & CURRENT PRACTICES Farm & Wilderness landholdings support a diversity of forest communities, wetland features, and habitat types. The uniqueness of this area is the result of the underlying bedrock. The rich variety of plants, wildlife, and stunning landforms create a beautiful landscape enjoyed by many people who interact with the land. Farm & Wilderness’ current practices are outlined in each of the following sections.

Forest Ecology |

Photo: Michael Forster Rothbart

GEOLOGY

VT/NY BOUNDARY

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Bedrock can influence the mineral makeup of the soil above it, in turn influencing the plant communities that grow in that soil. Certain soil types are favored by different plants, and the natural communities found on Vermont’s landscape today are influenced by the ancient geological history of the land. Most of the Green Mountains contain bedrock formed in the Cambrian period (540 to 485 million years ago). Granite and gneiss, which form the bedrock for much of the Green Mountains, tend to produce acidic soils that are favored by species such as huckleberry, blueberry, and pines (Thompson, 2000). Dolomite

Source: USGS

bedrock runs north-south throughout Vermont primarily on the western part of the state in the Champlain Valley, but a small sliver called the Tyson formation is found in the Green Mountains and beneath the Woodward Area of Farm & Wilderness property. The Tyson formation of dolomitic stone is considered a thin bedrock–only 200 feet deep– and is an anomaly in the Green Mountains (Brace 46). This younger rock was formed in the Ordovician period (485 to 443 million years ago) along a fold belt (Brace 112).

The carbonate minerals from dolomitic bedrock add minerals, nutrients, and alkalinity to the soil above, creating a richer growing environment. This bedrock is found along Woodward Reservoir and the resulting richer soils support a variety of natural communities and plant species that are uncommon in this area of Vermont (Thompson, 35), including green spleenwort (endangered in Vermont), blue cohosh, jack in the pulpit, summer sedge, stout goldenrod, basswood, and white ash (Engstrom, 2009). Farm & Wilderness’ conserved land protects these state-important species.

DOLOMITIC BEDROCK AT FARM & WILDERNESS PROPERTY

DISTRIBUTION OF DOLOMITIC BEDROCK IN VERMONT

Dolomitic Bedrock Other Bedrock Types

Enlarged Map Area

The diagram along the bottom of the page shows a cross section of Vermont bedrock. The complexity of the layers illustrates how bedrock extends below ground; only a small section of rock at the surface influences the soils above.

NINEVAH AREA

Source: USGS

Forest Ecology |

VT/NH BOUNDARY

FOREST ECOLOGY

Photo: Tim Stout

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Vision Statement for Vermont Forests:

“The forests of Vermont will consist of healthy and sustainable ecosystems, a prosperous and sustainable forest products industry, abundant recreational opportunities and a combination of ownership patterns supporting a working forest landscape and large, unbroken forest tracts. Citizens, government and businesses understand their proper roles, responsibilities and rights, and work together to support the values of forests for this and future generations.” (Vermont Forest Resources Plan, 2010)

Regional Forests Vermont has been primarily forested since glaciers last receded around 15,000 years ago. When colonists arrived, Vermont was 95% forested. They cut many trees for agriculture, pasture, and fuel, and by 1840 the state was only about 25% forested (Thompson 18). Since the late 1800s, agricultural fields have been reverting to forest. The state is currently 76% forested, though a recent increase in development has caused a slight decline in forest cover since a peak in the 1990s (Vermont Forest Resources Plan 2010). Vermont’s forests are threatened by fragmentation, or the division of larger parcels into smaller parcels. These parcels may then be developed or simply create more divided forest management choices because of the greater number of property owners. The New England/Acadian Forest type blankets the region. These forests contain many subtypes of forest communities, which vary from coastal pine scrub to subalpine Krummholz. Southern New England typically features oak-hickory forest, while the central and northern parts of the region are typically northern hardwood, and the northernmost areas are considered boreal forest. Vermont lies in a transition zone between northern hardwood and spruce fir forests, and features many acres of each forest type.

Map: The Nature Conservancy

Figure 1. Northern hardwood forest covers much of inland New England, including many acres at Farm & Wilderness (location in red).

MONTANE FOREST

Map: The Nature Conservancy

Figure 2. Montane forest is found throughout New England at elevations above 2,300’ and supports niche species of plants and birds.

Forest Ecology |

Montane forest types found at higher elevations support many animal species that require cooler temperatures, such as the Blackburnian warbler, endangered Bicknell’s thrush, American marten, and Canada lynx (Kimball, 2011). Farm & Wilderness’ property at the Ninevah Area includes higher elevation forests with montane communities. As temperatures warm in Vermont, these higher elevation ecosystems will shrink, hardwoods will migrate upslope, displacing the species that have niche habitat requirements. Farm & Wilderness’ property is at the southern edge of the montane spruce-fir forest type, which is already relatively uncommon in Vermont. Protecting the southerly range of this forest type and maintaining connectivity corridors with nearby similar habitat will allow mobile species to shift regionally northward. Farm & Wilderness already has this part of their property protected in perpetuity, adding to important regional connectivity.

NORTHERN HARDWOOD FOREST

Current and projected forest suitability, 2100

Figure 3. Habitat suitability for New England forest types will shift by the year 2100. Based on two Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change scenarios, this map reflects habitat suitability, but not necessarily what forest types will actually be inhabiting the areas shown. Adapted from Rustad et al, 2012.

CLIMATE CHANGE PRESSURES ON REGIONAL FORESTS As climate change shifts the dynamics of forests in Vermont, many changes are anticipated. Increased droughts are expected to alternate with increased precipitation; with warming temperatures and more frost-free days per year, the landscape will be greatly affected (Rustad et al., 2012). Large storm events may create sudden and visible alterations like those seen from Tropical Storm Irene, but slow shifts in forest ecology will be harder to detect without careful observation.

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White-tailed deer feed on tree saplings and herbaceous understory

plants. Currently the deer population on Farm & Wilderness property is not large, but habitat conditions are projected to become more favorable for white-tailed deer as temperatures warm and winter conditions become less harsh (Weiskopf et al., 2010). A growing deer population will increase browse pressure on the forests, in turn affecting the regeneration of young trees. With fewer saplings able to grow beyond the reach of deer, the mix of tree ages will be disrupted, creating a less-diverse age range of trees. As older trees die, there will be fewer young trees ready to take their place (Côté et al., 2004). Additionally, deer prefer to eat certain species of tree saplings (e.g., eastern hemlock, northern white cedar,

A deer browse line is the highest deer nibble, and is visible here in a stark example of an over-browsed forest.

maples, and oaks) and leave others uneaten, further contributing to an unbalanced matrix of growth (UMN Extension, 2020). Spruce and fir, which are typical of northern regions and higher elevations, are particularly vulnerable to climate change (D’Amato, 2015). Habitat suitable for montane forest is expected to decline significantly, and oakdominated forests will expand (Rustad et al., 2012). Tree species’ ranges move slowly—an acorn can only be carried so far from the tree—and the rapid pace of climate change is likely to be faster than tree species can keep up with. In some cases, assisted migration, sometimes called adaptation planting, can be a helpful tool to equip forests with the ability to recompose with climate-resilient species.

Assisted Migration: also referred to as adaptation planting, is the human-assisted movement of plant and tree species in response to climate change. Moving trees northward whose current range is at a lower elevation or more southerly latitude could help forests move toward climate resiliency.

Photo: Susan Day, UW Madison Arboretum

Photo: USDA Emerald ash borer, Agrilus planipennis, is a foreign beetle whose larvae eat through the cambium of ash trees. Once the ash borer infests a forest, ash trees typically die within 5 or 6 years, with a mortality rate upwards of 97%.

REGIONAL PESTS AND PATHOGENS Pests and pathogens put additional stress on forests undergoing climate change, and problematic insects are already numerous in New England. Hemlock woolly adelgid, beech bark disease, emerald ash borer, spotted lanternfly, and longhorn beetle all threaten the forests of the Northeast. EMERALD ASH BORER Farm & Wilderness is particularly concerned about the emerald ash borer (EAB). EAB infests all types of ash trees and causes widespread mortality relatively quickly, creating a major disturbance in the forest life cycle. There is a high concentration of ash in parts of the property, and the beetles have been confirmed in other areas of Vermont.

reach the forest floor. This stimulates the growth of new saplings and other forest understory plants, but also creates opportunities for invasive plant species to proliferate if they are present (James et al., 2012). On rich soils like those at the southern end of Woodward Reservoir, the growth of unwelcome species can be further accelerated. JUMPING WORMS Earthworms are not native to New England, but most species are lauded for their soil-enriching qualities. There are three species of invasive worms, Amynthas agrestis, Amynthas tokioensis, and Metaphire hilgendorfi, that have been present in the region for years but have recently proliferated and spread rapidly. Inhabiting just the top few inches of soil, they devour leaf litter and nutrient-rich organic matter that plants need to thrive, leaving behind loosened soil resembling coffee grounds. Collectively termed “jumping worms”, they are popular as fishing bait because they thrash and

wriggle, attracting fish. Sometimes sold as compost worms, these worms are moving around the region rapidly. Both these uses accelerate their distribution. Their small eggs, called cocoons, are easily transported on garden tools or muddy boots as well as in soil from potted plants. Once they enter a forest ecosystem, they greatly alter the forest floor, increasing the amount of nitrogen in the soil, lowering the carbon/nitrogen ratio (Price-Christenson et al., 2020). Jumping worms can devour up to 95% of the leaf litter in one season (Sever, 2020). While it is too early to know their long term effects on an ecosystem, it may be prudent to avoid their introduction where possible. Diligent cleaning of boots and tools, as well as prohibiting the use of jumping worms as fishing bait or compost worms can help slow their expansion and reduce the chances of the worms being introduced to soils at Farm & Wilderness.

Forest Ecology |

Forests grow rapidly, and New England forests typically regenerate quickly after disruption. However, if the majority of ash trees die within a short time span, that will open up the tree canopy and allow light to

Invasive jumping worms disrupt the forest ecosystem by devouring the layer of leaf litter on the forest floor, leaving behind crumbly soil and few nutrients for plants to grow (top). The worms have a pale band encircling the darker body (below).

FOREST CARBON Carbon sequestration is the process in which trees, grasses, and other plants remove atmospheric carbon to use for photosynthesis. Carbon storage refers to that carbon remaining captured in the biomass of trees and forests (Fig. 4). Temperate and boreal forests in North America could sequester and store a greater amount of atmospheric carbon if the trees are allowed to grow to maturity (Moomaw et al., 2019). Some recent studies show that trees continue to sequester carbon even as they grow to maturity; Stephenson et al. state that a large mature tree can sequester in one year the entire amount of carbon stored in a medium-sized tree (2014). Other studies assert that growth patterns and biomass accumulation of large trees are still not certain and more research is needed on sequestration patterns of individual trees as they age (Sheil et al., 2017). Regardless, temperate forests have a high capacity for carbon storage

50%

because of the relatively slow decay rate from cooler temperatures but a fairly warm growing season that consumes atmospheric carbon (Moomaw et al., 2019). Forests that have not been harvested for timber are incredibly biodiverse and are the most carbon-dense terrestrial ecosystems in the world (Moomaw et al., 2019). Areas in Maine that have been harvested consistently contain two-thirds less carbon than the forests of Southern New Hampshire and Vermont that have experienced less frequent logging (Moomaw et al., 2019). The practice of proforestation, or allowing a forest to continuously grow without active timber management, increases the carbon stored in a forest (D’Amato and Catanzaro, 2019). Carbon credit programs incentivize this practice by selling carbon credits for companies to offset their carbon pollution. However, if timber harvesting in a region is ceased altogether, that timber must be cut elsewhere to meet the demand for

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OF THE WEIGHT OF DRIED WOOD IS STORED ATMOSPHERIC CARBON

wood previously sourced locally. Harvesting timber thousands of miles away and then transporting it consumes fossil fuels and pushes deforestation on other communities. Most of New England was logged and turned into sheep pasture in the 1800s, but much of this old pasture has been reforested over the last century. Currently, New England’s forests average around 75 years old, which is quite young considering that many regional tree species have a lifespan of around 300 years (Moomwaw et al., 2019). These relatively young forests will have a much higher capacity to sequester carbon if trees are allowed to grow to an older age (Moomaw et al., 2019).

Proforestation: Growing an

existing forest intact toward its full ecological potential, allowing continuous forest growth without interruption from active management or timber harvesting. (Moomaw et al, 2019)

CARBON SEQUESTRATION

is the active process of carbon being removed from the atmosphere, such as when trees take up carbon to use in photosynthesis.

CARBON RELEASE

occurs as organic matter decays. Dead wood and leaf litter slowly release carbon as bacteria and fungi break down the material.

CARBON STORAGE

is carbon that is kept out of the atmosphere. In a forest setting, it can be stored in living plants, dead wood, and in the soil.

Figure 4. Atmospheric carbon in forest biomass.

STORED CARBON PER ACRE IN NORTHERN HARDWOOD FOREST 80-100 YEARS OLD

84 U.S. TONS 30 TONS/ACRE ORGANIC SOIL MATTER

36%

Figure 5. Adapted from Catanzaro and D’Amato, 2019

12 TONS/ACRE LEAF LITTER

5.5 TONS/ACRE DEAD WOOD

5.5 TONS/ACRE LIVING MATTER BELOW GROUND

Forest Ecology |

14%

36%

30 TONS/ACRE LIVING MATTER ABOVE GROUND

Forests at Farm & Wilderness Farm & Wilderness’ 4,500 acres contain a diverse range of forest types and support many tree species and herbaceous understory plants. The property elevation ranges from its lowest point of 1,341 feet at the shores of Woodward Reservoir to 3,159 feet near the peak of Salt Ash Mountain.

WOODWARD AREA

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At the Woodward Area, the forest type is predominantly northern hardwood and rich northern hardwood with a large percentage of sugar maple. Red oak-northern hardwood forest and a large stand of hemlock-red spruce forest runs north-south along the ridge that rises to the east of Woodward Reservoir. Red oak, which thrives in areas with a history of fire disturbance, is not common in this part of Vermont but is anticipated to be a climate-adapted species that can withstand fluctuations in temperature and moisture levels (Clark et al., 2022). Encouraging the growth of red oak may provide greater climate resiliency in the face of increasing temperatures and precipitation extremes.

At the southern end of Woodward Reservoir, where richer limestone soils are prevalent, the forest has a very high density of white ash trees, and other species that prefer rich soils such as basswood. These richer limestone soils also support less-common understory plants such as green spleenwort, summer sedge, stout goldenrod, back’s sedge, and wood millet.

NINEVAH AREA The Ninevah Area sits at a higher elevation than the Woodward Area, with the shores of Lake Ninevah at 1,778 feet in elevation. Here the forests have more conifers mixed in with the hardwoods, with many more spruce and fir living at this elevation. Sugar maples, beech, and white ash are the predominant hardwood species. Salt Ash Mountain (elevation 3,286’) hosts a large stand of beech trees, which are an important mast tree for black bears. Many acres of deep forest at the Ninevah Area have no trails, creating undisturbed forest habitat. Farm & Wilderness already carefully stewards this forestland, and its oversight protects the biodiversity featured here.

Forest Ecology |

Figure 6. Adapted from field data collected by B. Engstrom, 2016-2018.

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Forest Types at

Northern Hardwood Forest: This is a dominant forest community within Vermont and occurs at middle-elevations (less than 2,700 feet). It includes beech, sugar maple, and yellow birch, and can also contain hemlock, red oak, red maple, and white pine (Thompson, 94). It holds some of the most diverse variety of plant species of any forest community in the state. Most of Farm & Wilderness’ property contains this forest type.

Rich Northern Hardwood: A variant of northern hardwood forest, characterized by sugar maple and white ash, and hosts a richer variety of plants that require mineral-rich soils. These forests are found where mineral-rich bedrock or downslope movement of minerals from rich bedrock occurs (Thompson, 138-139). There are areas of rich northern hardwood forest at both the Woodward Area and the Ninevah Area.

Mesic Red Oak-Northern Hardwood: Similar to northern hardwood forests, but these forests have a significantly higher amount of red oak present. These communities mostly occur on dry, south-facing slopes below 2,500 feet in the southern portion of Vermont, and below 1,500 feet in the northern portion of the state. Large whorled pogonia is a rare, acid-loving orchid that can be found in this forest community (Thompson, 142-143). A small section of forest in the Woodward Area along Wilderness Ridge is considered Red Oak-Northern Hardwood forest.

Hemlock-Northern Hardwood: A common community in Vermont ad New England, occurring at elevations less than 1,800 feet. Hemlock make up less than 25% of the otherwise dominant hardwood communities within this forest. Hemlocks are shade-tolerant and can survive under the shade of tall hardwood trees. Hemlocks can be found growing alongside hardwoods in many parts of the Ninevah Area.

Farm & Wilderness

Montane Yellow Birch-Red Spruce Forest: This forest community occurs at elevations between 2,200 and 3,000 feet. Dominated by yellow birch and red spruce, the understory species include hobblebush viburnum, striped maple, and mountain maple (Thompson, 107, 119). This forest type is found in the north west portion of the Ninevah Area.

Montane Spruce-Fir: Occurs at elevations above 2,500 feet and contains red spruce and balsam fir, and is the preferred habitat of Bicknell’s thrush, a rare and vulnerable bird in Vermont. Some high elevation slopes of the Ninevah Area are Montane Spruce-Fir forest.

Spruce-Fir-Northern Hardwood Forests: A forest community that can be found at a range of elevations and up to 3,500 feet, where trees reach their threshold of survival in New England. Plants suited to cold, harsh weather conditions thrive in these forests. Many acres at the Ninevah Area feature this forest type.

Forest Ecology |

Hemlock-Red Spruce: A variant of a Hemlock Forest, this community occurs at elevations below 1,800 feet, and is identified by the hemlock and red spruce trees that dominate. Hemlock trees are capable of living up to 1,000 years. They cover only about 5% of Vermont’s forests (Thompson, 145-146). This forest type is found at the Woodward Area, along wilderness ridge to the east of the reservoir.

Current Practices TIMBER HARVESTING & FOREST HEALTH Farm & Wilderness practices uneven aged management, long harvest cycles, and small patch cuts (½ to 2 acres in size) to mimic the disturbances experienced by natural forest systems. Uneven aged forests have range of tree ages, with younger trees interspersed with older trees. This age diversity offers resilience in the case of a disturbance event such as a wind storm or pest infestation that may impact a certain tree size or age more than others. Because much of the land had been cleared for agriculture in the recent past, the forests growing now are relatively young and careful management equips the forests to continue to return to their natural patterns of death and regeneration. Farm & Wilderness has expressed interest in reducing their timber harvesting even further than their current practices. While reducing harvesting would increase carbon storage in the forest, ceasing it altogether would require continued careful planning and further management to help the forest develop the diverse structure and age composition that were stripped from it when it was cleared centuries ago.

Farm & Wilderness does not harvest timber above 2500’ elevation as shown in the map on the facing page. In Vermont, harvesting above this elevation requires a permit. By not cutting here, these montane areas, typically slower to recover after disturbance, remain unstressed from harvesting. See Figure In 1998, an ice storm damaged many trees in southern Vermont, but Farm & Wilderness did not carry out any salvage cutting after the storm. Many landowners remove downed trees to recoup some of the monetary loss from the fallen timber following a disturbance, but allowing woody debris to remain in place continues to store carbon as the trees slowly decay and cycle nutrients back into the soil. Within the acres at the Woodward Area that are managed for timber harvesting, there are some stands of forest along Wilderness Ridge that are electively not harvested; this is where the landscape is particularly steep. The forest here has not been logged in at least 80 years. This is also a deer wintering area, which provides important habitat beneath spruce and hemlock trees that shield the ground from deep snow, allowing the deer to move around without expending precious energy in the winter months. Farm & Wilderness does not harvest any oak on the property, which is present only around Wilderness Ridge. Oak is expected to be a climate resilient tree in future forests. By leaving oaks in place, Farm & Wilderness hopes to promote continued seeding and growth of new oak trees.

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UNEVEN-AGED FOREST

EVEN-AGED FOREST

AREA ABOVE 2,500’ ELEVATION

Smith Peak 3,204’

Wilderness Ridge 2,200’

Burnt Mountain 2,804’

Bear Mountain 3,088’ Salt Ash Mountain 3,286’

State Forest

Forest Ecology |

Figure 7. Area of 2500’ elevation or higher shown in orange. 287 acres of forest at the Ninevah Area are above 2500’ and are not harvested for timber.

ASH TREE DENSITY AT NINEVAH AREA

Ash Trees Other Tree Species

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State Forest

Figure 8. Density of ash trees at the Ninevah Area, calculated from forest management statistics on the percentage of tree species growing in mapped forest stands. Because the count of trees per acre is not known, this map assumes a uniform density of growth across all acres.

ASH TREE DENSITY AT WOODWARD AREA

WHITE ASH With the threat of emerald ash borer looming, many landowners have been preemptively harvesting ash trees before they become damaged by the beetles. Trees compromised from insect damage are less valuable as timber and can break and fall in unpredictable ways, endangering loggers. Farm & Wilderness’ forester has not been preemptively cutting ash trees beyond the amount they normally cut. Ash Trees Other Tree Species State Forest

Figure 9. Density of ash trees at the Woodward Area, calculated from forest management statistics on the percentage of tree species growing in mapped forest stands. Because the count of trees per acre is not known, this map assumes a uniform density of growth across all acres.

Forest Ecology |

With such a high quantity of ash trees on the property, Farm & Wilderness has an opportunity to see if any individuals survive infestation and may therefore offer a genetic resistance to the beetles. Withholding from interference in the face of emerald ash borer presents the opportunity for a large-scale experiment to see what might happen following the arrival of the beetles. Because Farm & Wilderness holds such a large acreage, research institutions may be interested in monitoring the site before, during, and after infestation and studying the findings. Seeking partnerships with organizations interested in conducting research on Farm & Wilderness property could contribute to regional strategies for dealing with impacts from the emerald ash borer.

Photo: Tim Stout

WATERSHED & WATER QUALITY

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“Hydrology is the study of water and its properties, distribution, and effects. Water is critical for the survival of plants and animals and its relative availability and abundance is a key factor in determining the natural community that occurs in a given location” (Thompson,63).

The Connecticut River is the largest river in New England, flowing roughly 406 miles. It begins in Canada, flows south creating the Vermont-New Hampshire border, continues through Massachusetts and Connecticut and terminates at the Long Island Sound into the Atlantic Ocean. Farm & Wilderness is located in the Ottauquechee and Black River sub-basins within the Basin 10 watershed. There are many sub-basins within Basin 10, which encompasses 23 towns that range from rural to urban. This area hosts a diverse landscape with mountain peaks and hillsides. There are many lakes and ponds within this watershed that cover approximately 1,610 acres (Tactical Basin Plan, 2018).

Figure 1. Farm & Wilderness’ property is located within the Ottauquechee River sub-basin and the Black River sub-basin, which are both located within the larger Basin 10 watershed. Basin 10 is part of the Connecticut River watershed.

A watershed is a land area whose streams, rivers, and surface runoff flow into a specific body of water (Tactical Basin Plan, 2018). The Connecticut River Watershed is the largest watershed in New England, Hitchcock once completely encompassed the entire Connecticut River watershed area, and overtime receded, leaving behind glacial deposits and nutrient-rich soils (Larsen, 1987).

Hydrology |

and was formed by a massive glacier that receded about 18,000 years ago. This ancient glacial Lake

Regional Hydrology There are two major watersheds with in Basin 10, the Ottauquechee River watershed and the Black River watershed, they are known as the sub basins of the BlackOttauquechee watershed. Both sub basins flow from the Green Mountain range to the Connecticut River. According to the Watershed Management Division of the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, there are ten major stressors that impact the surface waters within the Basin and affect water quality (Figure1). Specifically, for the Ottauquechee River and the Black River, stressors such as sediment loading, rising temperatures of water, flow alteration, and habitat alteration are of particular concern.

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The landholdings of Farm & Wilderness are divided between the two sub basins that are within Basin 10. Woodward Reservoir and its surrounding streams flow north into the Ottauquechee River. Lake Ninevah and its surrounding wetlands flow south into the Black River. Woodward Reservoir and Lake Ninevah are amongst the largest lakes within Basin 10, and they are both at the top of their respective sub-basins. Since they

are large bodies of water that are amongst the first to contribute to the Black River and the Ottauquechee River, they impact the health of downstream waterbodies, and appropriate management is critical to helping to reduce the stressors that impact water quality within the entirety of the Basin. CLIMATE & WATER QUALITY

A changing climate is predicted to amplify the stressors on Basin 10. “An increased number of highintensity rain events in conjunction with warmer temperatures will result in more flooding along Vermont’s rivers and shorelines.” (Vermont Wildlife Action Plan, 2015). The increased intensity and frequency of these storm events will increase storm water flow which can lead to flooding, and can also adversely impact fish and wildlife. Management of landscape activities, waterbodies, and aquatic communities must address the impacts of increased water flow in order to mitigate the channel and land erosion and the nutrient loading that are caused by these storms. The addition of nutrients

and sediment runoff into water bodies increases the occurrence of algae which reduce the oxygen in water and clog the gills of aquatic species (NOAA what is a harmful algal bloom?). Nutrient-heavy water is also more costly to filter in town water systems, and may be harmful to humans and animals. Increased flood events and rising water temperatures may also assist in the spread of invasive species like knotweed and phragmites which are of concern in Vermont. This, combined with more frequent freeze-thaw events during the winter, will lead to higher water runoff in seasons that normally do not experience large flows of snowmelt or runoff. The summer months that once experienced frequent, small rainfall events are now experiencing longer periods of drought and more sudden, large rainfall events that exacerbate flooding and increase sediment runoff (Vermont Wildlife Action Plan, 2015). Management strategies to protect native species from invasive receiving a competitive advantage will be important as temperatures rise and storm water flow increases .

“For the most part, stressors result from human activity on the landscape; however, when landscape activities are appropriately managed, stressors are reduced or eliminated” (Tactical Basin Plan, 2018).

10 MAJOR STRESSORS THAT IMPACT SURFACE WATERS Major Stressor

Effects on Water Quality

Sources of the Stressor

Altered pH of lakes and ponds

Atmospheric deposition

Results in periodic dewatering or inundation of habitat including extremely high velocity and rapidly changing water

Non-natural variation in water flow due to water withdrawals

Acidity

Altered Hydrology

Aquatic Invasive Species

Channel Erosion

Encroachment

Land Erosion

Loss of habitat and ecological integrity of aquatic or riparian habitats

Human dispersion Natural spread

Impervious cover runoff, dams, culverts, and climate change

Loss of habitat, equilibrium, and ecological process due to construction within or adjacent to floodplains, wetlands, lakes, stream, and rivers.

Roads, buildings, utilities, stream crossings, dams

Of surface waters

Poorly-functioning septic systems, agricultural runoff, domestic animals

Loss of habitat and equilibrium. Misinterpreted biological thermal reproductive cues by aquatic species

Removal of woody and herbaceous riparian and shore land vegetation, climate change

In surface water and ground water

Atmospheric deposition, inorganic and organic contaminant releases, pesticides, biologically-driven toxins

Increased fine sediment and nutrient Ditching, cropland, forestland uses, loading due to erosion of exposed construction sites, storm water runoff soils.

Figure 2: Source: The Vermont Surface Water Management Strategy

Hydrology |

Toxic Substances

Lake or reservoir fluctuations

Increased sediment and nutrient loading due to stream disequilibrium

Nutrient loading (non-erosion)

Thermal Stress

Decreased/altered flows from hydropower dams

Water Quality + Forests

| Farm & Wilderness

Forests play an important role in mitigating the stressors that impact surface waters. Forests allow water to slowly filtrate into the ground. This environment decreases the amount and speed of water that flows into streams from stormwater runoff. An abundance of trees are an indication of good watershed health.

Trees reduce the volume of water that lands on the ground. They catch water and snow on their leaves and branches which evaporates, transferring the water back into the atmosphere. The branches and trunk of the trees also convey water to the tree roots. The shade cast by the trees allows snow to melt slowly, and the litter on the forest floor creates an irregular surface for water to move through. This slows the flow and enhances filtration of water into the soil (Green Infrastructure Center).

An intact forest floor containing wood and leaf litter, tree roots, vegetation, and mineral-rich soil help filter sediment and pollutants from surface runoff (Vermont Water Quality Manual for Logging Professionals, 2018). By filtering and absorbing some dissolved chemicals and pollutants, forests are critical to enhancing the water quality of downstream waterbodies. Trees stabilize soil and provide erosion control. Impervious surfaces like concrete or asphalt have the opposite effect on water and increase water runoff rates into nearby rivers and streams, causing erosion and sediment loading into lakes and ponds. Any time the forest floor is disturbed by compaction or the removal of soil, the soil’s absorbancy is reduced. If soil is exposed, the likelihood of soil runoff increases and the area risks erosion (Vermont Water Quality Manual for Logging Professionals, 2018).

Blocking or intercepting water through the creation of roads or trails in the forest can divert water flow and water can accumulate. Eventually, this will lead to channel erosion. “Timber harvests that remove a significant percentage of the trees in a watershed can increase the amount of water moving through the soil into streams, and in some instances, increase flooding (Vermont Water Quality Manual for Logging Professionals, 2018). Watersheds that contain 65% or more of forested cover are more protective of stream biology (NOAA, Water Quality Indicator). The sub-basins which Woodward Reservoir and Lake Ninevah are located in are approximately 91% forested. Farm & Wilderness helps to protect a portion of those trees and does not harvest timber near waterbodies including streams, vernal pools, and intermittent streams.

View of Woodward Reservoir and ridgeline above Woodward camps Photo: Kelly Beerman

WATERSHED SUB-BASINS

Farm & Wilderness is located in sub basins that are 91% forested. An abundance of trees is an indication of good watershed health. Hydrology |

Figure 3. Sub-basins are mapped with tree canopy shown in green. These sub-basins are 91% forested.

Forested Upland Streams

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Steep slopes found in forests contribute to the transport of sediment into upland streams. A buffer of native vegetation along upland streams is important for stabilizing the slopes, limiting the amount of pollution that goes into water bodies, and it is also as a critical habitat for some endangered species (Tactical Basin Plan, 2018).

A high density of large trees and shrubs also helps to prevent large amount of chemicals and pollutants from entering adjacent streams and contaminating groundwater (Living in Harmony with Streams, 2016). The roots of plants and trees can help absorb, filter, and remove chemicals such as Nitrogen and Phosphorous from the water before they reach the

groundwater table (Riparian Management Guidelines for ANR Lands, 2015). Soils like clay bind and hold the chemicals in place, preventing them from affecting water quality (Dramstad, 1996). In hilly or mountainous watersheds like Basin 10, water flows quickly down slope and water levels in the smaller upland streams can rise rapidly. These smaller streams are vulnerable to flooding and severe erosion can occur during storm events. This is a sensitive ecology; where even if a few trees are lost, small streams become especially vulnerable to heat and may quickly evaporate, resulting in the loss of a critical habitat for some fresh water species. “Multiple studies (Semlitsch and Bodie 2003, Petranka and Smith 2005) suggest that a 20-30 meter buffer from

Photo: Tim Stout

streams will include the majority of core habitat for stream salamanders” (Riparian Management Guidelines for ANR Lands, 2015). These woodland streams are critical habitats for rare and endangered freshwater, terrestrial, and avian species. On Farm & Wilderness Property, upland stream corridors are predominantly forested, and no timber harvesting occurs within 50 feet of stream banks (Baseline Document Report, 19).

Canopy Interception

Precipitation

Trees and the water cycle: Evaporation

Trees reduce the volume of water that lands on the ground. They intercept precipitation by catching water and snow on their leaves and branches which evaporates; transferring the water back into the atmosphere. The branches and trunk of the trees also convey water to the tree roots.

Stored Water

Infiltration

Roots bind soil to prevent erosion

Moisture Uptake + Storage

Stream corridor and dissolved substance: “Dissolved substances, such as nitrogen, phosphorous, and toxins entering a vegetative stream corridor are primarily controlled from entering the channel and reducing water quality by friction, root absorption, clay, and soil organic matter; these in turn are most effectively provided by a way corridor of dense natural vegetation” (Dramstad, 1996). 1. Contact with stems and litter slows water movement

Field

Dissolved substances 1 2 3 4

friction root absorption clay soil

No stream corridor Narrow stream corridor Wide stream corridor

2. Plant roots absorb dissolved substances prior to reaching the stream 3. Clay particles hold dissolved substances 4. Soil organic matter absorbs dissolves substances

Forested Upland Stream

No timber harvest within 50 feet of streams On Farm & Wilderness Property, upland stream corridors are predominantly forested, and no timber harvesting occurs within 50 feet of stream banks. 50’

Hydrology |

50’

Nearby Connolly Pond in Shrewsbury, Vermont

Wetlands + Climate Change

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A wetland is an area that has a water table at or near the surface of the land (Salimi et al, 1). There is a multitude of different types of wetlands; including, forested wetlands, open wetlands, wetland seeps, and vernal pools. These different types of wetlands provide important habitats for salamanders, frogs, newts, and other invertebrates as well as critical habitat for wetland plants (Thompson, 240).

In addition to providing habitat for wildlife, wetlands provide many benefits to humans that are especially important in a changing climate. Wetlands can reduce flood damage by temporarily storing and slowly releasing flood waters. Wetlands clean the water that passes through them by removing pollutants, such as nutrients and

sediments before the water reaches nearby streams and rivers. They also slow down soil erosion by slowing the speed of water that passes through. Wetlands help in times of drought; since they slowly release water after filling up, they continue to provide water to surrounding areas even in dry conditions (Benefits of NC wetlands). The waterlogged conditions of wetlands creates an environment that lacks oxygen, and this anoxic state results in large amounts of accumulated carbon. Wetlands contain 20 to 30% of the world’s carbon pool, but only cover about 5 to 8% of land surface (Salimi et al, 2). Known as carbon sinks “wetlands have been identified as one of the most productive

Photo: Marc Cimonetti

ecosystem types; i.e. through photosynthesis, they can actively sequester and accumulate carbon as plant biomass or organic matter in soil” (Salim et al, 2). Compared to all terrestrial ecosystems, wetlands store the most carbon and, therefore, are critical to regulating climate. Water purification, flood control, and climate change mitigation are a few beneficial services wetlands provide. However, a rapidly changing climate is also a major threat to wetlands. The biochemistry of a wetland ecosystem can be altered by increasing temperatures and altered hydrological patterns resulting in some of these important benefits and services that wetlands provide to turn into disservices. “This means that they

will no longer provide a water purification service and adversely they may start to decompose and release nutrients to the surface water” (Salimi et al, 2). If decomposition rates increase in wetlands they may shift from a carbon sink to a source of carbon and start to emit carbon dioxide and methane into the atmosphere (Salimi et al, 2).

VERNAL POOLS There are numerous vernal pools and wetland seeps that support a myriad of amphibians such as spotted salamanders and wood frogs found on Farm & Wilderness land (Engstrom, 2018). Black bears, mink, bats, and other wildlife may also venture to vernal pools. Vernal pools are short-lasting, shallow pools of water found in forested areas that provide critical habitat for invertebrates, amphibians, and reptiles to mate and lay their eggs in a relatively predator-free

environment. The eggs then have to mature quickly in the vernal pool and beat the heat of summer, which dries up these pools. Mature amphibians then leave the vernal pool and live in the forest. Frogs and salamanders will travel the same migration path their entire lives, and return to the same vernal pool to breed (Thompson, 390-393). Changing climate is likely to affect the length of time which a vernal pool may exist, and influence the populations of wildlife that rely on them. Fragmentation of forests and increased recreation around vernal pools and wetland seeps are also harming the creatures that depend on this natural community. Farm & Wilderness protects numerous acres of wetlands, vernal pools and wetland seeps from development; however, a changing climate remains a threat to wetlands.

BENEFITS OF WETLANDS Flood + Erosion Control

Clean Water

Wetlands give rainwater a place to go - they hold water from heavy rain events and help prevent flooding. Wetland slow down erosion by slowing the speed of water passing through.

Wetland act as “nature’s kidneys” by removing pollutants, such as nutrients and sediments, from water flowing through them.

Ninevah Area

Photo: Andy Schulz

Water Storage

Wetlands are home to a wide variety of plants, insects, amphibians, reptiles, fish, birds, and mammals.

Wetlands act as sponges, temporarily storing flood waters and releasing them slowly, after filling up, continuing to provide water to surrounding areas during dry conditions.

Hydrology |

Habitat

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Tropical Storm Irene

A historic year for Vermont, 2011 saw a total of four disaster declarations all before Tropical Storm Irene even occurred in August. These disaster declarations were all due to flooding and fluvial erosion in the months of April and May (Vermont Hazard Mitigation Plan). Then Tropical Storm Irene cascaded throughout the region and caused approximately 2,500 miles of road damages. Throughout Vermont, 480 bridges and 960 culverts were damaged, and over $350 million in estimated repairs was caused by the storm (Vermont Hazard Mitigation Plan). The amount of rain that fell in south central Vermont was catastrophic and the most severe in the state. Since much of Basin 10 features steeps slopes, narrow valleys, and many small mountainous streams that follow transportation infrastructure, this Basin is

especially vulnerable to flooding and erosion. “The Towns in the Ottauquechee River sub basin experienced $12,686,382 in damages and the Towns in the Black River sub basin experiences $12,535,826 in damages” (Tactical Basin Plan, 2018). After the storm, the communities of Plymouth and Mount Holly became very concerned about erosion and sediment loading in their lakes and rivers as the storm pointed out the vulnerabilities of the road and water infrastructure. Extensive flood mitigation efforts and resiliency planning within the watershed are ongoing and carried out by individuals, communities, and the state of Vermont. Financial incentives for municipalities have been established for “the adoption and implementation of municipal zoning bylaws that protect and preserve river corridors, shorelands

Sediment runoff from the Connecticut River into the Atlantic Ocean during Tropical Storm Irene

and buffers” (Tactical Basin Plan, 2018). Within Basin 10 many towns have completed the process to become eligible for financial incentives for river corridor and floodplain protection, and Plymouth received the maximum 17.5% State match for future damages (Tactical Basin Plan, 2018). Effective July 1, 2014, Act 172 established a shore land management program to prevent sedimentation in Vermont’s lakes, ponds, and reservoirs. The Town of Plymouth, Vermont Local Hazard Mitigation Plan identifies strategies to reducing risks from flooding, severe weather, and other known hazards.

The Lakes and Ponds Management and Protection Program educates shore land property owners and town residents on the requirement of the Act. The Lake Wise program works with property owners on voluntary lake shore improvement projects, and educates the public on best management practices for conserving lake shores, shore land vegetation management standards, bank stabilization, and many other lake shore management strategies. In an effort to maintain the shore lands and to restore areas around water bodies that need to be stabilized to prevent erosion, the Conservation Director of Farm & Wilderness holds a Natural Shoreland Erosion Control Certification since 2019 through the Lake Wise program.

The Vermont Shoreland Protection Act (Act 172) “Sets forth standards for reasonable and responsible development of lake shore parcels, for the protection of water quality, shore land bank stability and shore land and lake shore habitat. The Act establishes the required use of best management practices to: (1) ensure development will occur on a stable slope with minimal erosion, (2) manage, treat and control erosion due to storm water runoff, and (3) provide erosion control, bank stability, and wildlife habitat” (Biennial Report Act 110).

“The topography of Basin 10, consisting of steep slopes and narrow river valleys, make it especially vulnerable to flooding and erosion” (Tactical Basin Plan, 2018).

Lake Wise Program Recommendation

Hydrology |

A mix of trees, shrubs, and un-mown groundcover along lake front to stabilize the shore and prevent erosion is recommended to prevent sedimentation of pond and lakes

Hydrology at Farm & Wilderness Two rare natural communities found at Farm & Wilderness include a dwarf shrub bog on Woodward Reservoir and an intermediate fen around Lake Ninevah. These natural communities are both types of peat lands and wetlands where plant decomposition is exceeded by plant growth (Thompson, 2000). What distinguishes a bog from a fen is the source of water: a bog has a slightly raised surface and most of its water and nutrients come A natural community is an interacting assemblage from precipitation. The water is high in acidity and of organisms, their physical environment, and the low in nutrients. Fens have a flat or sloped surface natural processes that affect them (Thompson, 58). whose water source comes from groundwater Some natural communities in Vermont create discharge making the water mineral rich certain conditions that warrant a distinction by the (Thompson, 309). The specifics of both these peat State because they contain very rare, rare, or lands create conditions for rare natural communities. uncommon characteristics and species.

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Surrounded by acres of forest and mountain peaks, Farm & Wilderness also contains two beautiful lakes - Woodward Reservoir and Lake Ninevah. These lakes are both home to numerous natural communities. Some of these natural communities are home to rare or endangered plant and wildlife species; such a loons, which have returned from near extinction in this region.

Woodward Reservoir Photo: Michael Forster Rothbart

To the north, Woodward Reservoir lies between Route 100 and Tamarack Camp. There is public boat access on the northwest shore of the reservoir, and Farm & Wilderness has agricultural fields on the southeast side. There are also a few private residences along the southern and western shorelines of Woodward Reservoir opposite of Farm & Wilderness eastern shoreline. The glacial history of the Reservoir creates the rare dwarf shrub bog that floats along the eastern shoreline of the Reservoir. To the south, Lake Ninevah also has a dam and a public boat access point. On the southern side of the lake a 34 acre wetland that has been ranked as part of the Vermont Natural Heritage Inventory. Since it is home to several aquatic habitats such as vernal pools, mountain streams, and forest seeps it is ranked as rare natural community in Vermont. Hydrology |

Vermont Natural Heritage Inventory Ranking System: S1- Very Rare S2- Rare S3- Uncommon

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Woodward Reservoir

Woodward Reservoir is within a sub-basin that drains north into the Ottauquechee River before eventually flowing into the Connecticut River. The reservoir is about 111 acres, and a maximum depth of 51 feet (Habitat Assessment, 2019). Several water sources flow into the reservoir including overland surface water runoff, groundwater seeps, and at least three unnamed tributaries (Habitat Assessment, 2019). There is an earthen dam at the northern portion of the Reservoir that outflows into Reservoir Brook. For public recreation, a Vermont Fish and Wildlife Department public fishing and boating access area is located off Route 100 on the northern end of the reservoir. Farm & Wilderness camps are located on the eastern side of the reservoir. Along the shoreline, Woodward Reservoir is home to a number of mature native trees and shrubs such as white pine, American beech, paper birch, eastern hemlock, and speckled alder.

The overhanging riparian woody vegetation is abundant, creating good conditions for biological organisms throughout the reservoir, and numerous rock ledges and sharp drop-off create an ideal habitat for fish. There is a small portion alongside Woodward reservoir that is adjacent to the agricultural fields that is less vegetated (Habitat Assessment, 2019).Woodward Reservoir contains a floating dwarf shrub bog (S2) natural community, also known as a peat island, that hosts acid-loving plants like sphagnum mosses and sheep laurel. Dwarf shrub bogs are open peatlands that have an environment that is low in nutrients and minerals. This environment is ideal for insectivorous plants like pitcher plants which are adapted to acidic water. In Vermont most dwarf shrub bogs occur in kettlehole basins which are depressions in the

View of Woodward Reservoir, the Farm, and the Bissell & Ingalls Hill ridgeline from Sauters Rock. Photo: Kelly Beerman

landscape formed by ice blocks left behind by glacial retreat (Thompson, 314-315). They float in open water in the center of the basin like the dwarf shrub bog found in Woodward Reservoir. Low shrubs with an abundance of flowers in early summer such as leatherleaf, bog laurel, sheep laurel, and bog rosemary are commonly found in these environments, as well as stunted black spruce and tamarack trees. They are also where birds like Lincoln’s sparrow, common yellowthroat, and rusty blackbird go to breed, and the rare four-toed salamander may be found in this type of environment. Dwarf shrub bogs are uncommon in Vermont, with few total acres statewide. Since the habitat is so specialized, it is extremely vulnerable. Changes to the water quality of Woodward Reservoir or runoff from Route 100 may threaten the habitat and the species that live on this floating wetland.

Hydrology |

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Lake Ninevah

Lake Ninevah is in the sub-basin that flows south into the Black River, which eventually drains into the Connecticut river. The 171-acre lake is only about 12 feet at its deepest point, and is home to a variety of unique habitats and species. The Ninevah area contains a variety of wetland types totalling approximately 220 acres including 34 acres of a wetland known as an intermediate fens on the south side (Engstrom, 2018). This area is full of water features like springs, cascades, and waterfalls. The bedrock beneath the lake results in low alkalinity of the water, a condition that makes this a mineral-rich environment for plant growth. There are two surface water inputs draining to the lake; one input is located on the eastern side of Procter Hill and enters the northwest shore of the lake, and the other flows through the large peatland on the southern shore of the lake (Engstrom, 2018). This mineral-rich intermediate fen (peat land) is a wetland that stores water, mitigates downstream flooding, and protects against erosion during storms. It filters water by trapping sediment and removes nutrients and pollutants from the water. Many wetlands, including this fen, are the headwaters for many cold water

View of Lake Ninevah and signage from Vermont Public Access Greeter Program Photo: Elena Zachary

upland streams that are home to rare and endangered species and plants like bladderwort and pitcher plants. The outlet of the lake is in the northeast corner where water level is controlled by the dam. Intermediate Fens are only found in areas of Vermont where there is calcium-rich bedrock (Thompson, 310333). The groundwater enriched by the dissolved minerals from the bedrock feeds this peat land and its tall sedges, mosses, and shrubs are adapted to mineralrich environments. Similarly to the dwarf shrub bog, many birds use the low shrubs and herbaceous plants as a breeding ground. Meadow voles and masked shrews may also be found hiding beneath the grasses in this flat landscape, and dragonflies like the Canada darner are abundant (Thompson, 310-333). All examples of Intermediate fens in Vermont are under 50 acres, making them extremely vulnerable to disruption (Engstrom, 2018). Changes to water quality or water level are a threat to intermediate fens, particularly those that are along shorelines of ponds or lakes, such as the one found at Lake Ninevah. Human use can cause trampling of the fens therefore visits should be contained to the upland forests.

Hydrology |

The fens are not structurally sound as portions of the fens may only be held together by the roots of the vegetation floating on top of the slowly moving water; “the wrong step could have some watery consequences” (Engstrom, 2018). There are at least 52 vernal pools within the Ninevah Area (Engstrom, 2018). Vernal pools, typically found in the upland forests, are depressions that fill with water in the spring and fall. The overhanging canopy of the surrounding trees shades these vernal pools and slows evaporation. The communities of wildlife that prefer a vernal pool habitat include amphibians like the Northern dusky and two-lined salamanders. Similarly, seepage wetlands are found in upland forests occurring at the base of slopes, occurring where groundwater comes to the surface. The mineral rich groundwater allows for lush vegetative growth within this wetland (Thompson, 310-333). Half of the vernal pools found at the Ninevah Area are confirmed to be state significant because they are critical breeding habitat for vernal pool specialists like wood frogs & mole salamanders and over 100 spotted salamander egg masses and over 50 wood frog egg masses were found in the Ninevah Area during an ecological survey performed during the Spring of 2017. The amount of vernal pools found on the low flat ridge south of the lake and on the small plateau north of the lake was said to be unprecedented in the state of Vermont by the field ecologist who conducted

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Vermont Natural Heritage Inventory Ranking System: S1- Very Rare S2- Rare S3- Uncommon

the survey (Engstrom, 2018). There are at least seven different natural community types of wetlands found in the Ninevah Area that total 300 different wetlands. Most of these wetlands are small (1 acre of less) and cover 220 acres. This does not include the 8 acres of potential wetlands. Small wetlands play a critical role in plant diversity and are home to invertebrates that are critical in forest ecosystems. Basin swamp, forested seepage wetlands, marshes & wetland meadows, open peat land, shrub swamp, and small open seepage wetlands are all found around Lake Ninevah. Each of these are home to some state significant natural communities or endangered species (Engstrom, 2018). Recently, a natural community with unique ecological characteristics has been identified in the state of Vermont. It is a type of small open seepage wetland made up of tall herb glades. Ecologists have called it a montane tall herb glade, and it usually makes its home at higher elevations in the Coolidge Range. The few instances of this community found in Vermont are nestled in between breaks of forest canopy and contain an abundant growth of tall herbs and are highly biodiverse. Small areas of montane tall herb glades are surprisingly found scattered throughout the Ninevah Area, and an unusually large area of this type of natural community is found on the upland north west side of the property by Salt Ash Mountain (Engstrom, 2018).

Current Practices Farm & Wilderness is conscientious in their practices, and diligent work has been done to maintain the abundant biodiversity within Lake Ninevah, Woodward Reservoir, and adjacent streams. There was a third pond with a dam known as Peggy’s Pond on the southwest side of the Woodward Area. The dam found on Peggy’s Pond was in danger of failure, and the decision was made to drain the pond and restore it to a wetland in 2019. After the dam was decommissioned, passive restoration allowed the native seed stock in the previously submerged soil to germinate, and a wetland has started to emerge. There are ecologically-minded practices in place on Lake Ninevah on Woodward Reservoir. Through the Vermont Public Access Greeter Program, greeters have been employed throughout the summer seasons to prevent invasive aquatic plant species from entering the water. Through education, boat inspections, and signage, people are asked to clean off their boats prior to entering the water and after exiting. For many lakes in Vermont, fast spreading non-natives like Eurasian Milfoil are harmful. Eurasian Milfoil is able to grow in lower temperatures than other native plants and eventually it blocks native plants from receiving sunlight. Since Lake Ninevah is a shallow lake, only about twelve feet at its deepest part, close monitoring is critical for its health. Periodic surveying of the lake is done to monitor and remove harmful non-native species, and Lake Ninevah has been free of Eurasian Milfoil for decades.

BUFFER PROTECTION AREAS

Farm & Wilderness Stewardship plans limit timber harvesting near wetland areas. These protections follow the current use guidelines for the Forest Legacy Program and the Vermont Shoreline Protection Act (Farm and Wilderness Foundation Forest Stewardship Plan). (TERRESTRIAL) INVASIVE SPECIES

There are a few terrestrial invasive species on Lake Ninevah that were found in 2016. The forester and the ecologist employed by the Ninevah Foundation and a representative from the Vermont Land Trust identified eight harmful non-native species including knotweed goutweed, wild (or poison) parsnip, buckthorn, wild chervil, giant hogweed, Garlic mustard, Wall-lettuce. Especially focused and concerned about these species near roads, lakeshores, and streams, the Ninevah Foundation began to collaborate with neighbors to develop a strategy to control their spread across land boundaries.

Vegetative buffers on Farm & Wilderness Property

Photo: Kelly Beerman

Hydrology |

Wetland off SAM trail on Ninevah Area

Wildlife Movement & Habitat

“For the well-being of wildlife and people, connections matter.”

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- The Nature Conservancy

Photo: Tim Stout

Connectivity Farm & Wilderness land is part of a large block of forest that is important habitat for some animals. Nestled between segments of Coolidge State Forest and Okemo State Forest, Farm & Wilderness land is an integral piece of this region’s conservation puzzle. Many wildlife species rely on large areas or “blocks” of forest habitat and on connections between these habitat blocks. When land that is home to natural communities becomes developed for agriculture, housing, or other land uses, habitat blocks become fragmented and wildlife can suffer (Sorenson and Osborne, 2014). Without connections between large areas of forest, some animals have a difficult time moving through the landscape safely and efficiently. One in five species in the United States are at risk of extinction, and the loss of biodiversity through the disruption of natural wildlife habitats is one of the main reasons why so many animals are endangered (Haddad, 2015). Supporting genetic diversity among species in a population is essential for species richness and reduces the risk of extinction. Depending on the species, some animals need thousands of acres of deep forest land to travel in their lifetime. Finding suitable habitat, mates, and food sources are all reasons for animal movement.

Farm & Wilderness

spine of the Green Mountains, as well as other ecologically significant blocks of forest that connect to surrounding states and Canada, are identified in Vermont as high priority areas important to conserve.

Wildlife Movement & Habitat |

High Priority Connectivity Blocks are areas identified as being essential for habitat connectivity. The entire

Habitat Fragmentation Habitat fragmentation occurs when large, contiguous areas of habitat are divided into smaller areas of habitat. This affects species dynamics and movement, and forest and watershed composition. Fragmentation is almost always caused by human intervention and development. With increasing human population and development pressures, habitat fragmentation is likely to occur at faster rates in the region. Fragmentation, coupled with climate change impacts such as increased precipitation, temperature, and proliferation of invasive species, will likely stimulate animals to move further north to find suitable habitat, food sources, and mates. Reducing forest fragmentation will support the success of wildlife migration and help increase the survival of species as they are forced to relocate due to human development and climate challenges. (Sorenson and Osborne, 2014).

An unfragmented habitat block where wildlife can move freely.

Moose are one example of a species that has been affected negatively by habitat fragmentation, in particular due to increased roadways and traffic. In wintertime, salt is spread on roadways to alleviate ice accumulation. In the spring, the salt drains off the road and into pools of water. These “salt pools” attract moose and other wildlife, especially in the springtime when they are nutrient-deprived, bringing these animals closer to the edges of busy, dangerous roads (Rea, Roy V., et al. 2021). A study conducted by Vermont Fish and Wildlife found that nearly 70% of non-hunting-related moose mortalities were due to collisions with motor vehicles in the state. Higher incidents occurred in the spring and summer and salt pools were often found near to the crash site (Alexander, 1993).

Road fragmenting a habitat block, creating a dangerous crossing for wildlife.

Roads and development further fragmenting and reducing viable habitat and space for wildlife.

WILDLIFE CROSSING DATA The Wildlife Crossing map (right) identifies areas in Vermont that have high habitat suitability and are within close proximity to busy roadways to determine wildlife crossing potential. Data layers used to create this map include: • Land use and land cover | Farm & Wilderness

• Housing and development density

• Large blocks of contiguous habitat In this map, the more red a line is, the higher the probability of wildlife crossing a roadway. The map focuses on terrestrial species, and does not include aquatic species or their associated waterways. The dataset was created by Vermont Center for Geographic Information.

WILDLIFE CROSSING MAP

Dividing a large area of forest to the west of the Woodward Area is State Route 100. It is regarded as one of Vermont’s most scenic roads, and runs almost the whole length of the state north to south. This road is appealing to many leaf peepers, tourists, and outdoor recreation enthusiasts, as it connects to some of the most beautiful outdoor areas in the state.

Woodward Area Route 100

This area of Route 100 is identified as an area with high potential for wildlife crossing. The proximity of large habitat blocks to one another, as well as Woodward Reservoir as a water source for wildlife, create a desirable area for wildlife to cross the road. This puts animals at risk of injury and mortality from fast-moving cars, and also compromises human safety. More information should be gathered at this location to determine more accurate wildlife crossing potential, document incidents, and implement appropriate wildlife crossing assistance techniques.

Wildlife Movement & Habitat |

Wildlife Habitat at Farm & Wilderness Rusty blackbird populations have declined 85% in the last fifty years, much to the dismay of ecologists and ornithologists (ebird.org). The rapid decline of these birds likely has to do with the development and destruction of wetlands, their preferred nesting habitat. In 2014, only twenty rusty blackbird nests were documented in the entire state of Vermont. One such area that the rusty blackbird has been identified is the wetland marsh just north of Lake Ninevah (Engstrom, 2018). The continued protection of this vital habitat is critically important for this bird species. State status: Endangered. Photo: Shawn Taylor

Little brown bat populations have been steadily decreasing. White Nose Syndrome (WNS) has resulted in the loss of 5.7 million bats in the northeast U.S. since 2006. This fungus was discovered in Vermont in 2008, and since then the little brown bat and northern long eared bat populations have declined by 90% (Vermont Fish and Wildlife Department, 2015). Bats in the northeast U.S. rely on insects as their main food source, specifically insects that have aquatic larval stages (Rustad et al. 2012). Changing precipitation patterns and altered stream flow might disrupt the life cycle of these insects, therefore altering the availability of bats’ food source.

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State status: Endangered.

Photo: USFWS

Common loons are the only North American loons that live in New England. They are very sensitive to disturbance, and a loud motor boat or disruptive human may cause them to abandon their nest and leave their vulnerable young. Loons are susceptible to getting tangled in fishing lines and other trash. Increased development along shorelines reduces the availability of nesting sites for loons, which may cause them to leave an area. Maintaining calm and clean waters will help loons continue to return to lakes and deep ponds in Vermont, including Woodward Reservoir and Lake Ninevah. Photo: Chris Thayer

State status: Vulnerable. Removed from endangered species list in 2005.

Bicknell’s thrushes are ecological specialists, meaning they require very specific environments. Bicknell’s thrushes are found in high elevation spruce-fir forests. Salt Ash Mountain near Lake Ninevah hosts this forest community. The Partners In Flight organization identified 86 bird species out of roughly 450 breeding landbirds in the US and Canada to be of continental concern. Of these 86 species of concern, 19 are highlighted as being on the Red Watch List, which are identified as being “species with extremely high vulnerability due to small population and range, high threats, and rangewide declines.” Bicknell’s Thrush is on this red watch list. Photo: Alan Schmierer

State status: Rare, imperiled.

Four-toed salamanders are the smallest terrestrial animals in the Northeast. The female salamanders spend most of their lives in upland forests, but each spring migrate back to the same area they were born in to lay their eggs. These salamanders lay eggs in vernal pools, fens, and bogs. They prefer and will seek out areas that contain sphagnum moss, which have cavities perfect for hiding delicate eggs in. Though there are not any documented findings of this salamander at Lake Ninevah’s peatland, it is likely that there is suitable habitat here for this rare and elusive salamander. State status: Rare, imperiled. Photo: Brian Gratwicke

Photo: Jamesvincentwardhaugh

State status: Common, though populations tend to fluctuate from year to year.

Wildlife Movement & Habitat |

Ruffed grouse prefer habitat with three age classes of forest, early succession tree species such as aspen and paper birch, and forests with some downed trees and diversity of plant cover. Aspen stands are the preferred habitat for ruffed grouse, and actively managing this type of forest for ruffed grouse may encourage them to live on Farm & Wilderness property. Their diets change seasonally: in the spring and summer they tend to eat grasses, berries, and insects; in the fall they search for beech nuts and acorns; and in winter they forage on the buds of aspen, birch, and hop hornbeam.

Wildlife Habitat at Farm & Wilderness Eastern bobcats are common throughout Vermont, though they are rarely seen due to their solitary nature and stealthy movement. They are very adaptable creatures, and can be found in a range of habitats. Rocky ledges serve an important role in their mating rituals, and the talus field at the southern end of Woodward Reservoir might serve as an excellent location for bobcats to mate and den in. They are a predator species, and their primary food sources include small rodents, rabbits, birds, and deer. Continuing to support habitat for prey species will support bobcat populations, which is important for ecosystem health. Photo: Becker

State status: Common. Monitored to maintain healthy populations.

Beavers are a keystone species, which means their presence strongly influences an ecosystem. Many natural communities would not exist if beavers were absent. Beavers dam up streams in order to create a pool of water where they build a den that offers safety from predators and warmth in winter. In doing so, beavers create water-filtering wetlands, open dense forests, and a diversity of habitats where many flora and fauna thrive. These ecosystems benefit humans by creating natural areas of stormwater management and water-holding capacity, essential for the projected increase of flooding events in New England. Beavers are found throughout the Ninevah Area.

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State status: Common. Monitored to maintain healthy populations.

Photo: Deborah Freeman

Moose are iconic, mystical woodland creatures that live in the deep forest communities of New England. They are feeling the pressures of a changing climate, and the health of their population is decreasing. In Vermont, their population decreased by 47% between 2010 and 2017 (Debow, et al. 2021). Warmer winters are pressuring moose to migrate to more northern areas to find suitable habitat. Moose typically are found in spruce-fir forests and in areas with active timber harvesting. Moose sightings on Farm & Wilderness land have been few but staff have seen moose and moose calves on or near the property. Photo: Jitzeco Uperus

State status: Common. Monitored to maintain healthy populations.

Black bears are the only bear species found in Vermont. They are relatively shy animals, and prefer to stay away from densely populated areas. During times when natural food sources are low, black bears might be attracted to garbage and bird feeders. Ensuring that food sources like berries, acorns, and beech nuts are available for bears will help keep them safe and healthy and avoid human encounters. Farm & Wilderness has an area where beech and oak trees produce plentiful, calorie-dense hard mast. Black bears and bear signs like scratch marks on trees have been seen on the property. Photo: Jitze Couperous

State status: Common. Monitored to maintain healthy populations.

White-tailed deer are incredibly adaptable animals that live throughout Vermont and New England. They prefer forest edges, where biodiversity is high and they can find a range of suitable habitats and food sources. Although deer can live in a range of habitats, they require very specific winter conditions in order to survive Vermont’s winters. Surprisingly, only 7 to 8% of Vermont forests offer suitable deer wintering habitat. The Woodward area hosts an ideal deer wintering area, and its continued conservation by the organization is essential for supporting deer through the winter months. State status: Common. Population management strategies may be implemented.

Photo: Yankechgary

State status: Common. Population management strategies may be implemented. Photo credit: USFWS

Wildlife Movement & Habitat |

Eastern Wild Turkey populations have been increasing over the last few decades due to milder winters and changing landscape use. Though the high population of wild turkeys may seem like a problem, it is likely that with the increase of agricultural land’s conversion to development, turkey populations will decrease. Maintaining a balance of population control through regulated hunting seasons, optimal habitat, and predator-prey relationships may help turkey populations stabilize and remain healthy as climate changes.

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A wildlife map interpreted from Brett Engstrom’s ecological study of the Ninevah Area in 2018.

Wildlife Movement & Habitat |

Map created using deer wintering layer from Vermont Geodatabase and mast layers from Vermont ANR mapping system.

Current Practices

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The forest and wetland practices that Farm & Wilderness implements maintain habitats that are crucial for a diversity of wildlife.

Farm & Wilderness manages its forests and wetlands to maintain the highest quality habitat for a variety of species. Under the Forest Legacy easements and forest stewardship plans, Farm & Wilderness continues the conservation of these areas.

Timber harvesting does not occur in elevations over 2,500 feet. This helps preserve the preferred habitat for the imperiled Bicknell’s thrush, an ecological specialist that depends on montane spruce-fir forests at higher elevations.

The beech and oak stands provide hard mast of beech nuts and acorns that are incredibly important food sources for many animals in the fall, including black bears. The stand of hemlock-spruce forest offers important deer wintering habitat. The various wetland types throughout the landholdings are also carefully monitored for invasive aquatic and terrestrial vegetation. Timber harvesting does not occur within 100 feet of these areas, a critical practice for maintaining healthy populations of amphibians, birds, and fish. This practice benefits the endangered rusty blackbird as well, who requires undisturbed wetlands for nesting.

Loons and other waterfowl nest on Woodward Reservoir and Lake Ninevah. Farm & Wilderness works very hard to maintain suitable habitat and conditions for these animals, by reducing the access points along the shoreline, not having an official trail that encircles the shore, and encouraging people to keep proper distance from waterfowl and other wildlife.

Loon at Woodward Reservoir Photo: Michael Forster Rothbart, Farm & Wilderness

The Loon Watch Project is the main program for the recovery of loons in Vermont and is run by the Vermont Center for Ecostudies. Farm & Wilderness, along with neighbors at Woodward and Ninevah areas, work closely with the project biologist for this organization. This project provides the nesting area buffer sign that Farm & Wilderness posts, gathers data on loon counts each year, and helps educate and inform the public.

Wildlife Movement & Habitat |

75 Overlooking Woodward Reservoir toward Farm & Wilderness. Photo: Kelly Beerman, Farm & Wilderness

Outdoor Recreation

Killington Ski Resort Photo: Hyun Lee

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“The state of Vermont saw record breaking participation in outdoor recreation activities and use of Vermont State Parks in 2020. Our parks welcomed well over 1 million visitors, the highest visitation rate since 1988 and the fifth highest in Vermont’s history.”

-Commissioner of Vermont Department of Forests, Parks & Recreation

Human Population & Covid-19

Anticipated increases in human population will likely influence the demand for more outdoor recreation (Vermont Forest Resources Plan, 2010). The wild land Vermont works tirelessly to conserve is appealing to many people. Enjoying a scenic drive, seeking outdoor adventure, or participating in activities such as hunting or fishing are all reasons that people are drawn to the state. Continuing to support out-of-state visitors, tourists, and outdoor enthusiasts will economically benefit Vermont, as it is estimated that the outdoor recreation industry brings in around $2.5 billion annually for the state (fpr.vermont. gov). The Farm & Wilderness land and the surrounding Coolidge State Forest and Okemo State Forests allow public recreation on trails. The Forest Legacy program, a federal grant program which helps landowners conserve forest land from becoming developed, requires that public access be available on such land. Much of the landholdings of Farm & Wilderness are in the Forest Legacy program, and the organization welcomes the public to their land. With the increased interest for outdoor recreation, there will be pressure to create more trails that provide a diversity of recreation types. During the covid pandemic, Farm & Wilderness noticed more visitors coming to their land asking for directions to trails nearby. Because of this, and because of increasing population in Vermont and New England, Farm & Wilderness is planning for more trail use on their land. The organization welcomes the increased interest from the public about their landholdings and the trails that wander through some ecologically unique areas.

Photo: Kelly Beerman, Farm & Wilderness

Wildlife Movement & Habitat |

The Sugarbush Trail at Woodward Area

Climate Change & Outdoor Recreation SNOW

The trail systems in Vermont are being affected by warming temperatures, shorter winters, and more frequent rain events. Shorter winters and reduced snowfall negatively impact snow-dependent sports such as cross-country skiing, downhill skiing, and snowmobiling. The Catamount trail system is the longest backcountry ski trail in North America, and travels over 300 connected miles through the state and reaches the borders of Canada and Massachusetts. A portion of this trail travels through the land at the Ninevah Area, and Farm & Wilderness allows all-season use of this trail for recreationists of all types. The VAST (Vermont Association of Snow Travelers) trail system travels through over 4,700 miles of trails in Vermont. Only available in the winter months with adequate snow cover, the VAST trail is a winter haven for snowmobilers, cross-country skiers, and snowshoers. A portion of this trail travels through Farm & Wilderness land.

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With the changing climate, the need for snowmaking in order to maintain a lucrative and enjoyable ski season will likely increase. Killington/Pico Ski Resort Partners own Killington Ski Resort, approximately four miles north of Woodward Reservoir as well as Pico Ski Resort, a smaller ski area , approximately four miles northwest of Killington Mountain. Both mountains use Woodward Reservoir to supply water for snowmaking. As winter temperatures warm and snowfall decreases, increased demand will be placed on the reservoir as a water source for artificial snowmaking. The allowable drawdown from the lake is monitored by the state, but Farm & Wilderness should continue to act to protect the health of the lake and its water quality as snowmaking pressures increase.

MUD

More freeze-thaw events cause trails to soften and become muddy, causing undesirable conditions for recreationists, and increasing potential for trail erosion and trail damage (Monz and Kulmatiski, 2016). High recreation use on saturated soil causes soil compaction, which damages plant health and reduces permeability (water absorption) of soil. This disrupts natural plant cycles and may also contribute to increased flooding events as the once-permeable soil has reduced ability to absorb water effectively. To avoid muddy sections of trails, trail users often walk around the perimeter of the area, which tramples vegetation and widens trails. Many state parks in Vermont will close trails during this “mud season” (often April-June) to reduce the negative effects of using muddy trails. Outdoor recreationists during this season should seek trails that have drier conditions. Increased human activity on Farm & Wilderness trails is welcomed, but during the mud season the organization should monitor trail impacts diligently. Farm & Wilderness should also remember that critical habitats for some animals, especially those which rely on large, contiguous blocks of forest, will be impacted by the increase of trail creation and human use (Vermont Forest Resources Plan, 2010). Any new trails should be designed to avoid ecologically sensitive and unique areas.

Current Practices

Campers enjoy a dayhike at Pico Peak

Photo: Michael Forster Rothbart, Farm & Wilderness

Farm & Wilderness has retained Timber & Stone, a small group in Montpelier, VT that assesses, designs, and constructs outdoor recreation trails, to conduct a trail assessment on the Farm & Wilderness properties. Approximately 20 miles of combined trails within the Woodward and Ninevah Areas will be assessed for safety, erosion, and accessibility.

Through ecological surveys, Farm & Wilderness has identified areas of ecological significance. These are areas where human interaction should be limited, and taken into account when planning any new trail construction. Sensitive areas include any areas where wildlife habitat is located, especially for wildlife that is threatened or endangered. Areas containing sensitive plant communities should also be avoided.

Bicknell’s thrush

Wildlife Movement & Habitat |

Farm & Wilderness is also in contact with forest managers from Coolidge State Forest and the Forest Legacy program. This small focus group meets throughout the year to discuss access and quality of trails. More time and planning with this group will benefit Farm & Wilderness, and possibly help connect its existing trails to larger trail networks within Coolidge State Forest.

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WOODWARD AREA HIKING TRAILS

NINEVAH AREA HIKING TRAILS

Wildlife Movement & Habitat |

Farm & Camp Practices Photo: Thea Dodds, Farm & Wilderness

Since 1939, Farm & Wilderness has held summer camps on its land for kids and teenagers. Its mission and values are deeply rooted in caring for the land and connecting people with nature. Its care for the land and for people is reflected in its thoughtful summer camp programming, where thousands of young people over the years have had the opportunity to come to camp and have new, exciting experiences.

“Over 50% of campers receive some form of tuition assistance, we have over $500,000 available in campership to award to families each year. For summer 2021, all families who requested aid received a campership award.”

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- Enrollment Director for Farm & Wilderness

Photo: Sarah Klock, Farm & Wilderness

Solar panels cover the roof of the Tamarack Farmhouse and a larger solar array is found toward the northern end of the Woodward Area property. The photovoltaic panels supply all the electricity the organization needs, eliminating the dependence on fossil fuels.

Gardens are tended to by staff and campers throughout the growing season. The camp kitchens use the fresh produce grown on-site to prepare healthy meals and teach campers about the power of growing and processing their own food. Photo: Carter Clark, Farm & Wilderness

Shelters throughout the camp often are built with timber from Farm & Wilderness forests. Some camp offerings include timber framing construction for the campers. Many shelters at camp have been built by campers throughout the years.

Photo: Thea Dodds, Farm & Wilderness

Composting toilets called Kybos are used by campers and staff and are found throughout the camp. These do not use water and have low impact when managed correctly. Farm & Wilderness maintains these systems diligently, and uses the humanure as compost for nonfood crops.

Wildlife Movement & Habitat |

Livestock are lovingly cared for by the campers and staff. Each animal has a role to play at the farm, such as invasive species removal and producing meat, fiber, dairy, or eggs . Campers learn to be empathetic caretakers of the animals, and are exposed to a kind way of raising livestock.

Specific Farm Practices

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Of the 604 acres of land at Woodward area, approximately 25 acres are farm and pasture land. The Main Farm, near Tamarack Farm & Camp is home to the gardens, greenhouses, and livestock of Farm & Wilderness. The farm manager uses regenerative farming techniques to foster a mutually beneficial relationship between the land and people.

ROTATIONAL GRAZING

SILVICULTURE TECHNIQUES

This practice of grazing livestock helps improve soil health, water resiliency, and nutrient abundance of a pasture. At Farm & Wilderness, grazing animals are managed and moved every three days from an area to limit the amount of grazing and ensure the area can regenerate fully. Compared to a more traditional style of pasture management like mowing, rotational grazing creates pasture land that absorbs and holds more water, and helps reduce the amount of sediment and nutrient loss. This occurs because the root systems of the grasses are left to grow deep, which increases the permeability and water-holding capacity of the soil. This thoughtful practice helps maintain the water quality of Woodward Reservoir, which is downhill from the farms.

Silviculture is the practice of managing forests and woodlots in a sustainable way. One method of silviculture brings animals into a forested area to help manage vegetation and/or invasive species. An area of wooded pasture land near Timberlake Farm has copious multiflora rose, a state-listed invasive plant. The farm manager has a three-year plan which includes bringing pigs into the area to try and remove the multiflora rose. After a few seasons of management, this area will be ready to receive a perennial mix of grasses intended for grazing. This practice reduces human labor and eliminates the use of herbicides to remove troublesome vegetation. Sheep, goats, and chickens are also grazed rotationally around the apple orchard to reduce unwanted insects and weeds from beneath the trees.

Photo: Sarah Klock, Farm & Wilderness

FARMS & GARDENS AT WOODWARD AREA

Wildlife Movement & Habitat |

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Recommendations The Farm and Wilderness Foundation is rooted in a long history of careful land stewardship, conservation, and recreation. The thoughtful considerations regarding ecological impacts in all aspects of operations have led to practices that are sustainable and forward-thinking. Creating connections between Farm & Wilderness, local community members, and other organizations to form networks of knowledge and support will help the community respond to negative climate impacts. When Tropical Storm Irene battered the state in 2011, Vermonters responded by summoning their skills, knowledge, and resources to help neighbors in need. Climate resiliency–the ability to recover from damaging climate change impacts–is strongest when a community works together toward a common goal. The common thread that links all of the recommendations is fostering connections that can support Farm & Wilderness’ goals of contributing to healthy water quality, providing safe recreation, supporting local agencies and nonprofits, and enhancing their property’s climate resilience. These recommendations aim to further the organization’s efforts to be thoughtful and dynamic stewards in a changing climate.

Recommendations |

Farm & Wilderness campers on a hike to Stratton Mountain Photo credit: Michael Forster Rothbart

Recommendations

Timber Harvesting & Forest Health Create a unified and updated forest management plan that details the climate resiliency practices that Farm and Wilderness already has in place. The management plan should identify further climate-resilient practices that could be adopted beyond what is already in place.

Strategies: • Define what a ‘healthy forest’ means to Farm & Wilderness and the property as a whole. Does this mean a forest with the most possible stored and sequestered carbon, a forest that has a large variety of climate-resilient tree species, or one that offers refugia for species predicted to decline with climate change? The new plan should reflect this definition of a healthy forest. • The plan should outline long-term goals (30+ years) that include the entirety of the property. • Make a condensed and digestible management plan for sharing with other landowners who may be interested in adopting similar strategies. This could be shared via a printed booklet or interactive PDF with linked resources.

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• The state climate forester can consult about further climate-resilient forestry practices beyond the robust practices already in place.

• South-facing slopes are warmer and drier, and impacts of climate change will affect these slopes more intensely. Consider prioritizing south-facing slopes to encourage a shift toward a climate-resilient species assemblage. North-facing slopes will remain slightly cooler and could serve as refugia for climate-sensitive species such as red spruce.

Consider assisted migration of climate-ready trees in areas near camps that have high ash content and thus may experience a large and sudden disturbance once EAB arrives.

Closely monitor for Emerald Ash Borer on the property with girdled trap trees and hanging traps.

Strategies:

• Use the events of significant forest disturbance (i.e. from the effects of EAB, HWA) as an opportunity to repopulate with climate-ready species suitable for the region.

• If EAB is detected, contact the USDA to inquire about whether the site qualifies for the release of parasitic wasps, a biological control that may help reduce infestations.

• Consult with the county forester, state botanist, and state climate forester on further climate resiliency tactics and assisted migration options that could be applied.

• After the emerald ash borer arrives, survey the property to search for any surviving ash trees. Surviving trees could offer genetic resistance to the beetle, and seeds should be collected for propagation. Connect with local or state organizations who may be spearheading the effort to locate and document surviving ash trees.

• Manage forests for tree species that have a wide range of moisture and temperature tolerances and thus may be more resilient to large fluctuations in future climate conditions.

• Other species less tolerant of shade can be raised in a nursery setting and planted out as soon as ash mortality creates openings in the overstory.

Timber Harvesting & Forest Health |

• Shade-tolerant species can be established beneath ash trees before they sustain damage so the saplings are ready to grow into the canopy once the ash trees are compromised.

• Managing a healthy and robust ash forest ahead of EAB infestation is more effective than attempting to treat individual trees with injections to prevent death. Tree injections would need to be perpetual and are not recommended or feasible at a scale beyond preserving select individual specimen trees.

Recommendations

Timber Harvesting & Forest Health

Conduct updated botanical assessments and ecological surveys of both the Woodward and Ninevah areas to compare against older assessments.

Strategies

• Continue to conduct these assessments on a regular basis to document changes over time.

• Methodically collected data that can be statistically analyzed to detect changes and assess the efficacy of removal and remediation efforts is preferable (Blossey, 1999). This will enable the formation of site-specific guidelines for best practices of invasive species management.

• Special attention should be given to the areas around Woodward Reservoir to detect any shifts in the presence of unusual and rare species that Brett Engstrom observed in the 2010 assessment.

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• Create a robust program for monitoring and removing invasive terrestrial species, especially at dolomite areas with richer soil that are more susceptible to invasives taking hold.

Implement a formalized invasive plant monitoring plan, with special focus around the dolomite area that contains richer soils.

• Maintain a schedule for routine removal of discovered problematic plant species.

Connect with UVM and other nearby universities who may be interested in conducting research at Farm & Wilderness property. Forging long-term relationships with research departments could be mutually beneficial to both parties.

Monitor for effects of deer browse to determine if population changes are impacting forest regeneration.

Timber Harvesting & Forest Health

Connect with local indigenous tribes to offer the use of Farm & Wilderness land for collecting plants and materials for traditional uses. Black ash trees are particularly important in traditional basket making, and with the high concentrations of ash trees on the property, some are likely to be black ash. Local artisans might be interested in ash trees for basket making purposes.

Recommendations

Wetlands & Watershed

The agricultural fields on Farm & Wilderness land may have a direct impact on the water quality of nearby water bodies due to their close proximity to Woodward Reservoir. Monitoring runoff from agricultural fields and investing in farm infrastructure improvements that enhance water quality may be needed to manage stormwater runoff.

Strategies:

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• Tending to the health of the vegetated areas around Woodward Reservoir is already a high priority for the farm manager and camp staff. A section of shoreline just south of the Tamarack Farm is currently not densely vegetated and has unwanted phragmites growing. The farm manager hopes to add some native shrubs and plants to this area. Planting vegetation along shorelines supports healthy habitat for fish and birds. This vegetation stabilizes the shore, filters run-off, and prevents erosion and sedimentation of downstream waterbodies (Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, Lakes & Ponds Section, Lake Wise Program).

• The Vermont Farm and Forest Viability Program from The Vermont Housing & Conservation Board provides grants of up to $40,000 to help Vermont farmers invest in projects that have a positive effect on water quality. Connecting with local agencies such as this, which offer grants and support for farm infrastructure related to water quality, could be a feasible way to make these investments.

Prohibit the use of invasive jumping worms as fishing bait at Lake Ninevah and Woodward Reservoir. Have the greeters stationed at the boat docks alert fishers to their impact and check fishers’ bait. Post signs to inform users about these worms when greeters are not present.

Continue protecting forests, wetlands, and upland streams as they help to slow and filter water entering the watershed. Keeping upland streams and waterways forested is an effective way to reduce erosion and downstream sedimentation.

Continue diligent annual monitoring for and removal of problematic terrestrial and aquatic invasive species.

Wetlands & Watershed |

Maintain 50’ no timber harvest buffer around streams and a 400’ buffer zone for selective timber harvest around vernal pools. For state significant designated vernal pools a 500’ buffer zone is recommended. At least a 75% tree canopy would be beneficial to the health of vernal pools.

Recommendations

Wetlands & Watershed

As storms increase in severity in the region, it will be important to support the quality of Basin 10 by monitoring the lakes and streams for signs of pollution. Dirt roads, where runoff may contribute to sedimentation in downstream water bodies, should be closely monitored.

Strategies: • Patch Brook Road is a dirt road that follows Patch Brook as it flows out of Lake Ninevah. This road was damaged during Hurricane Irene, and contributed sediment to Patch Brook during this extreme event. • Although Patch Brook doesn’t typically produce heavy sedimentation, on-the-ground monitoring of places where rivulets are visible on LIDAR imagery could point to places where erosion might be occurring in forested areas. • Revegetating upland areas experiencing erosion can reduce the amount of runoff entering the streams.

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• Implement record keeping practices to monitor water bodies and streams after significant storms. Ongoing record keeping with photographs, videos and written logs will allow for comparison of past rain events, identify areas of opportunity to further mitigate stormwater runoff, and determine whether infrastructure changes are having a positive effect.

• Contact the Department of Transportation to help guide Farm & Wilderness to manage and assess spring freeze/thaw cycles that cause weakening on dirt roads throughout Vermont. Dirt roads that run through the property could be used for testing new methods of road management and maintenance.

Rivulets visible on LIDAR imagery

Wetlands & Watershed |

Recommendations

Wildlife Movement & Habitat It is recommended that Farm & Wilderness continues with its thoughtful forest and wetland management practices that protect important habitats and natural communities.

Supporting wildlife movement in a changing climate is essential to the survival and genetic diversity of a species. Farm & Wilderness can support animal movement within their landholdings and across busy Route 100 by Woodward Reservoir through road crossing assistance and other practices.

Strategies: • Work with local, regional, and state agencies to implement specific animal crossing assistance practices. Such agencies might include: -

Vermont Agency of Transportation (VTrans)

Vermont Department of Fish & Wildlife (VDFW)

Vermont Natural Resources Council

U.S. Forest Service

Coolidge State Forest

Okemo State Forest

Forest Legacy Officials

Local conservationists and ecologists

The Nature Conservancy

Staying Connected Initiative

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• Install “Wildlife Crossing” signs along the stretch of Route 100 by Woodward Reservoir. This area might benefit from signs that flash when triggered by an animal that has entered the road (Leoniak et al. 2009).

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Consider incorporating speed bumps, rumble strips, painted road striping, or decreased speed limits along this stretch of road.

• Identify culverts that may be providing wildlife crossing value and maintain the capacity for animals to travel through these beneath the road.

• Install a game camera to capture images of wildlife that cross at this area to help prove a need for infrastructure and secure funding. • Monitor the roadside for salt licks to reduce moose and other wildlife attraction to roadway edges. Identifying salt licks and mixing them with mulch, logs, or animal fibers can make the salt lick less appealing to wildlife and deter them from using it (Rea et al. 2021). • Connect and consult with organizations that specialize in habitat connectivity and wildlife crossings, such as the Wildlands Network, a nonprofit organization that is committed to reconnecting and restoring important habitats in North America. • Apply for grants to have wildlife bridges, underpasses, tunnels or other wildlife-assisting structures installed. The INVEST Act which passed into law in 2021 provides funding for a national effort to improve wildlife connectivity through the Wildlife Movement Grant Program. $50 million per year in funding will be allocated to state and tribal agencies as well as private landowners to improve habitat connectivity.

Regional efforts to identify wildlife crossings

Wildlife Movement & Habitat |

Figure 1: Route 103 High Priority Wildlife Crossing (Leoniak, 2009).

In 2009, the National Wildlife Federation’s Northeast Regional Center in Vermont initiated a project with other organizations in the state to identify high-risk, high-priority areas of wildlife crossings along the Green Mountain Range. This project identified 11 priority zones out of 38 wildlife crossings. One of these zones is less than five miles south of the Ninevah Area in Mount Holly along Route 103 (Figure1). This area is similar to Route 100 by Woodward Reservoir, as it has wetlands and streams near the road and is surrounded by large blocks of forestland. The management techniques for this area that have been recommended include adding coniferous vegetation along the roadside in an area where animal crossing should be encouraged. Creating fencing that funnels animals toward this area helps secure the likelihood of animals crossing in a safer area. By creating a specific area that is appealing for wildlife to cross creates a space for motorists to be more vigilant while driving (Leoniak et al. 2009).

Recommendations

Wildlife Movement & Habitat

Build on current efforts to support wildlife habitats and support endangered species.

Strategies: • Connect with organizations such as Vermont Institute of Natural Sciences (VINS) and Audubon for bird monitoring. Obtain a baseline bird survey for the area, and continuously monitor every few years. Bird surveys can offer an opportunity to teach the public about the types of birds that are in the area and how to support them.

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• Connect or partner with the International Rusty Blackbird Working Group, a group focused on documenting any sightings of this bird, especially during its spring migration. Farm & Wilderness can also report any sightings of this endangered bird to eBird, a bird documentation system that is run by Cornell lab of Ornithology.

• Avoid the talus area at the southern end of Woodward Reservoir during March and April which is bobcat mating season. • Post signs throughout the Farm & Wilderness area explaining different habitats and wildlife. • Hold informational gatherings and opportunities for the public and for campers on Farm & Wilderness land that focus on maintaining and protecting wildlife habitats. • Implement the plan for a pollinator-friendly garden space. Include the campers’ input and design thoughts as an opportunity to increase their understanding of the importance of pollinators.

• Expand responsible timber harvesting practices to include no harvesting within 100 feet of suitable nesting habitat for the Rusty Blackbird, found at the Ninevah area.

• Pollinator garden signs are a great and fun way to engage and share knowledge with campers, staff, and the public. These signs, along with example plots, might even encourage others to try incorporating pollinator plants to their yards and gardens.

• Install bat houses on both Woodward and Ninevah areas. This may encourage bats to nest on Farm & Wilderness lands. Perhaps campers could help build these!

• Encourage neighbors to help support pollinators and birds by planting native host plants for lepidoptera, bees, and wasps.

• Maintain the deer wintering area on the ridge at Woodward Area to support populations of deer during the winter months.

• Continue limiting the use of pesticides and herbicides on the property. • Continue removing invasive terrestrial and aquatic species.

Why Pollinator Gardens? Supporting native pollinators is important for many reasons. Offering a garden space that contains native host plants for caterpillars and successively blooming flowers for pollinators is a simple and beautiful way to help these small creatures survive. With increasing development, higher use of pesticides and herbicides, and more frequent plantings of genetically-modified, monoculture crops, the pollinators in North America are struggling to survive.

Encouraging population growth of pollinators is also important for providing food for young birds! Baby birds rely almost exclusively on insects while they are growing. Caterpillars are the preferred meal, as they are easily digested due to a relatively thin exoskeleton, and are very high in protein.

Choose native plants to further support pollinators and insects who are dependant on certain plants. For example, black swallowtail caterpillars rely on Queen Anne’s Lace as their host plant. The ever-loved monarch caterpillar famously dines exclusively on milkweed.

Wildlife Movement & Habitat |

Consider the trees! Birds nest in all types of hollows, branches, and trunks. Standing dead trees or “snags” also host many birds. Leaving these trees if they are not of a safety concern is good practice. Additionally, oak trees support more caterpillar species than any other plant in North America. The space beneath oak trees is a place to be mindful of, as many insects can be found there. Reducing mowing or grazing beneath oak trees might be a practice to consider, so more pollinators can be supported.

Recommendations

Outdoor Recreation With increasing human population and higher demand for outdoor recreation and activities, Farm & Wilderness is likely to see an increase in land and water use. To reduce the pressure this will put on wildlife safety, habitat, and natural resources, it is important for Farm & Wilderness to continue monitoring their land for signs of stress that human overuse may cause, such as erosion issues, disturbed wildlife, litter, and invasive species. Continue maintaining ecosystem health and reducing human impacts in ecologically sensitive areas. Offer information about current land practices to the public and identify and explain why areas should be protected and avoided by human activities.

Strategies: • Closely monitor existing trail conditions, especially during shoulder or “mud” seasons, when the ground thaws and trails are sensitive to erosion and disturbance. Close the use of trails when muddy conditions persist.

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• Avoid ecologically sensitive areas for any new trails sited.

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• Conduct a baseline assessment of existing trails that explores trailheads and waypoints. The existing trails’ safety, resilience to flooding and erosion, and current management practices should also be assessed. Timber & Stone, a recreational trail design and construction LLC based out of Montpelier, VT, is currently in the process of examining the trails on Farm & Wilderness landholdings. • Identify any existing accessible trails, and consider adding an accessible trail or boardwalk. • Create a trail management plan that considers increased future use and climate change.

• Conduct an assessment of the parking areas for each trailhead. This should include the number of cars an area can host, private properties and homeowners nearby, and current condition of the parking area. • Explain to recreationalists the reason for limited parking in some areas and encourage users to carpool or use alternate modes of transportation whenever possible. There are private property owners around Lake Ninevah who would rather not have increased cars and people parking near their homes; there are ecologically sensitive areas that would be harmed if new parking was created; and increased erosion and sediment runoff may occur from expanding gravel roads near water bodies.

• Offer online and physical trail maps, noting trails around camps with limited use when camps are in session. Make trailhead locations more transparent to the public. Create a trailhead brochure and/or QR code on trailhead signs as a way to educate people on the ecological significance of Farm & Wilderness lands and how people can help protect the natural environment. • Use interpretive signs around highly sensitive areas to show visitors the unique features of the landscape and alert them to Farm & Wilderness’ careful practices that protect these areas. • Around areas of recent timber harvesting, post signs that explain Farm & Wilderness forestry practices, and point out the benefits that timber harvesting can have on diversifying tree age classes.

Outdoor Recreation |

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Recommendations

Farm & Camp Practices Farm & Wilderness already protects the natural resources that work to combat the impacts that humans have on the climate. The organization might consider inviting neighbors, local community members and agencies to the Farm & Wilderness land to discuss opportunities to increase climate resilience throughout the region.

Farm & Wilderness can increase climate resilience in the region by using its educational foundation to promote climate mitigation and adaptation practices to local community members and agencies.

Strategies: • Invite professionals from state agencies, colleges and universities, extension services, and other fields of expertise to give weekend lectures or workshops on a variety of climate-resiliency topics. Offering programming for local people of all ages can help to expand the local network of resiliency. • Host more informational sessions for the public regarding sustainable farming and forestry practices.

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• Include climate change education into camp programming if this is not already done.

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• Organizations like Shelburne Farms in Shelburne, VT and The Trustees of Reservation location at Appleton Farms in Ipswich, MA offer public educational programs focused on wildlife habitat conservation and sustainable farming practices. • Chewonki Foundation in Wiscasset, Maine offers a semester called The Maine Coast Semester to high school juniors that focuses on ecology, liberal arts, and experiential learning styles. • Nature’s Classroom is an outdoor education program located in various spots throughout New England. They offer overnight, immersive experiences for students that focus on environmental science, social and emotional learning, and outdoor skills. They also offer visits to schools where they lead a day-long education program.

Utilize space at the Woodward Area to establish a tree nursery for starting seedlings that can be planted in areas with anticipated damage from emerald ash borer. A tree nursery is also an opportunity for Farm & Wilderness to offer native, climate-ready trees to others in the region. Strategies: • Consider using Borrow’s Field as the location for a tree nursery. • A tree nursery can start small; a fence to protect seedlings from deer is an essential component, but other start-up costs can be kept low. Akiva Silver’s book Trees of Power: Ten Essential Arboreal Allies outlines many tree propagation strategies, including starting from seed, propagating cuttings, and air pruning tap-rooted species. • Create varied genetic stock of each tree species raised in a nursery setting by collecting or ordering seed from different regions within the species’ native range. • Collect seeds from healthy trees that are living in warmer and/or drier locations. This could promote successful populations of these climate resilient trees in future climate change scenarios.

• Continue to collaborate with Woodstock Union High School and the CRAFT program.

Although most earthworms are not native to the northeast, jumping worms are spreading rapidly and disrupting the forest understory by devouring the organic matter that herbaceous plants and saplings need in order to grow. Infested forests have little to no understory plants and low rates of regeneration (Görres). Once these worms are introduced, there is currently no way to effectively remove them. Strategies: • Growing all plants from seed, transplanting bare root plants, and making sure boots and garden tools are cleaned before entering the camp areas is the best way to prevent the worms from being introduced from contaminated soil. • Add signs to trail heads to alert hikers to follow protocols and clean their boots and gear before entering a trail system. • Do not accept any soil or compost from other facilities or locations which could contain worms or their cocoons. • Make sure on-site compost reaches 130 degrees Fahrenheit, which will kill all life stages of the worms.

Farm & Camp Practices |

• Retain any seed from survivors of a dieback event (i.e. hemlock woolly adelgid, emerald ash borer, beech bark disease) for propagation.

Take great care to reduce the likelihood of introducing invasive jumping worms to the soils on the property.

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Recommendations |

Photo credit: Kelly Beerman, Farm & Wilderness

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Sopher, Lauren S. The Greensboro Bend PLACE Program & Socially Just Conservation. Field Naturalist & Ecological Planning Program, June 2019, Department of Plant Biology, University of Vermont. Greensboro Conservation Commission, Project Sponsor. Sorenson, E and Osbourne, J. 2014. “Vermont Habitat Blocks and Habitat Connectivity: An Analysis using Geographic Information Systems.” Vermont Fish and Wildlife Department. Stephenson et al. “Rate of tree carbon accumulation increases continuously with tree size.” Nature, 507, p. 90-93 (2014).

Thompson, Elizabeth H., et al. Wetland, Woodland, Wildland: A Guide to the Natural Communities of Vermont. Published by Vermont Fish and Wildlife Department, The Nature Conservancy, and Vermont Land Trust, 2019. U.S. Census Bureau QuickFacts: Vermont; Massachusetts. https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/fact/table/ CT,RI,ME,NH,VT,MA/PST045221. Accessed 23 Mar. 2022. U.S. Federal Government, 2021: U.S. Climate Resilience Toolkit Climate Explorer. [Online] https://crt-climate- wexplorer.nemac.org/ Accessed 21 Mar. 2022. Vermont Agency of Natural Resources. December 2015. Riparian Management Guidelines for Agency of Natural Resources Lands. Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, Montpelier, VT. Vermont ANR - BioFinder3, https://anrmaps.vermont.gov/websites/BioFinder/. Vermont Conservation Design | Vermont Fish & Wildlife Department. https://vtfishandwildlife.com/conserve/ vermont-conservation-design. Accessed 16 Jan. 2022. Vermont Critical Paths Project - Providing Safe Corridors for Wildlife. https://www.slideshare.net/ NationalWildlife/vermont-critical-paths-project-providing-safe-corridors-for-wildlife Vermont Department of Environmental Conservation. 2015. The Vermont Shoreland Protection Act, Version 1.2. A Handbook for Shoreland Development. Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, Montpelier, VT. Vermont Department of Environmental Conservation. 2017. Statewide Surface Water Management Strategy. Vermont Surface Water Management Strategy, Watershed Management Division. March, 2012 rev. Jan 2017 Vermont Department of Environmental Conservation. 2018. Black and Ottauquechee Rivers and adjacent Connecticut River & tributaries, 2018 Tactical Basin Plan. Vermont Surface Water Management Strategy, Watershed Management Division. June 2018. Vermont Department of Forests, Parks and Recreation. 2009. Baseline Documentation Report Farm & Wilderness Foundation Plymouth, VT. Prepared by Redstart, Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, Montpelier, VT Oct. 2009. Vermont Department of Forests, Parks and Recreation. 2019. Vermont Water Quality, Acceptable Management Practices, Manual for Logging Professionals. Vermont Agency of Natural Resources. Montpelier, VT. Vermont Fish and Wildlife Department. 2005. Vermont’s Wildlife Action Plan 2005. Vermont Fish and Wildlife Department, Waterbury, VT. Vermont Fish and Wildlife Department. 2010. Vermont’s Wildlife Action Plan 2010. Vermont Fish and Wildlife Department, Waterbury, VT. Vermont Fish & Wildlife Department. 2015. Vermont Wildlife Action Plan 2015. Vermont Fish &Wildlife Department. Montpelier, VT. https://vtfishandwildlife.com/node/5512018 Vermont State Hazard Mitigation Plan - Final Adopted_Interactive.Pdf. VT Open Geodata Portal, https://geodata.vermont.gov/.

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Resources Forest Organizations and Resources: The Nature Conservancy | Forest Carbon in Vermont: https://www.nature.org/en-us/about-us/where-we-work/ united-states/vermont/stories-in-vermont/forest-carbon/ Vermont Land Trust | Forests That Reduce Carbon Pollution: https://vlt.org/forestcarbon. Vermont Fish & Wildlife Department | Vermont Conservation Design: https://vtfishandwildlife.com/conserve/ vermont-conservation-design. Northam Forest Carbon: https://www.northamforestcarbon.com. “Invasive Jumping Worms Damage U.S. Soil and Threaten Forests.” Science News, 29 Sept. 2020, https://www. sciencenews.org/article/invasive-jumping-worms-damage-soil-threaten-forests. “Earthworms Invade New England.” ScienceDaily, https://www.sciencedaily.com/ releases/2013/10/131029133126.htm. “Trap Trees: A Detection Tool for Emerald Ash Borer” Maine Forestry Service https://www.maine.gov/dacf/mfs/forest_health/invasive_threats/eab_trap_trees.htm Climate Change Response Framework | https://forestadaptation.org/adapt/adaptation-strategies Climate Change Tree Atlas | USFS | https://www.fs.fed.us/nrs/atlas/tree/

Outdoor Recreation Organizations and Resources: Green Mountain Club | Mud Season & Hiking in Vermont: https://www.greenmountainclub.org/hiking/ mud-season/ Kays, Roland, et al. “Does Hunting or Hiking Affect Wildlife Communities in Protected Areas?” Journal of Applied Ecology, vol. 54, no. 1, 2017, pp. 242–52. Wiley Online Library, https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.12700. Morse, Joshua W., et al. “COVID-19 and Human-Nature Relationships: Vermonters’ Activities in Nature and Associated Nonmaterial Values during the Pandemic.” PLOS ONE, vol. 15, no. 12, Dec. 2020, p. e0243697. PLoS Journals, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0243697.

Wildlife Habitat and Species Organizations and Resources: Rusty Blackbird Working Group: http://rustyblackbird.org/working-group/ Cornell Lab of Ornithology: https://ebird.org/home

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Partners in Flight | PIF Watch List Table (2016): https://partnersinflight.org/resources/pif-watch-list-table-2016/

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Vermont Fish & Wildlife Department | Endangered, Threatened and Rare Animals and Plants Lists: https:// vtfishandwildlife.com/node/1629. Ecology of Lake Ninevah | Okemo Valley TV. https://okemovalley.tv/ecology-lake-ninevah. Vermont Pollinator Plants: https://vtfishandwildlife.com/learn-more/vermont-plants/pollinator-friendly-plants Climate Change Bird Atlas | USFS | https://www.fs.fed.us/nrs/atlas/bird/

Wildlife Movement Organizations and Resources: Staying Connected Initiative: http://stayingconnectedinitiative.org/ Wildlands Network: https://wildlandsnetwork.org. Nature Conservancy: https://www.nature.org/en-us/about-us/where-we-work/united-states/vermont/stories-invermont/vermont-staying-connected/ National Wildlife Federation: https://www.nwf.org/Home/Our-Work/Habitats/Wildlife-Corridors/Northeast. Vermont Critical Paths Project | Providing Safe Corridors for Wildlife: https://www.slideshare.net/ NationalWildlife/vermont-critical-paths-project-providing-safe-corridors-for-wildlife “State Purchase of Okemo State Forest Tract Completes 100-Mile Wildlife Corridor.” https://vtdigger. org/2021/01/17 state-purchase-of-okemo-state-forest-tract-completes-100-mile-wildlife-corridor/. https://www.nwf.org/Regional-Centers/~/media/PDFs/Regional/Northeast/Critical%20Paths-%20Making%20 Roadways%20Permeable%20for%20Wildlife%20and%20Human%20Safety.ashx

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Resilience at Farm & Wilderness An Ecological Study

Caitlin Camilliere | Veronica Chudik | Elena Zachary The Conway School | Winter 2022

Resilience at Farm & Wilderness: An Ecological Study (Winter Project)

Articles inside

Farm & Camp Practices

Outdoor Recreation

Wildlife Movement & Habitat

Wetlands & Watershed

Outdoor Recreation

Wildlife Movement & Habitat

Watershed & Water Quality

Traditional Cultural Landscape | The Abenaki People

Forest Ecology

Climate Change

Conservation Status

Plymouth | Early Settlers & Industry

Demographics | Covid & Climate Migrants

Project Overview

Stakeholders