Contents: 2. Editorial from the editors 3. Le Camfranglais – Eniola 4. Los Dialectos chilenos – Xenia 6. L’histoire de Haïtien Créole – Neesha 8. Bhaarateey Boliyaan– Kashmea 10.Las Lenguas Indígenas de Latinoamérica – Mrs Hernandez-Moral 12. Wir können alles – außer Hochdeutsch! – Miss Koehnlein 14. Maithili – Vanessa 16. Palenquero – Sakina 18. Crioulos de base portuguesa – Miss Santos 20. Dialetto napoletano – Jemima 22. Dialetto siciliano – Jasmine 23. L’Heritage linguistique en France – Ms Marché
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Dear all readers of The Linguist magazine, Happy 2022! We hope you’re all enjoying the new year so far. For this edition of The Linguist magazine, we thought that there would not be a more interesting topic to write about than Pidgins, Creoles, and Minority Languages! We feel that learning about these aspects of languages allows us to develop our understanding of many different cultures, places, and minorities around the world. This term The Linguist brings you the new edition of the magazine on this topic, written by many of our wonderful students at NLCS. We hope you enjoy, Jasmine and Sakina <3 xxx
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Le Camfranglais Le Camfranglais, aussi connu sous le nom Francanglais ou Francamglais, est une langue vernaculaire camerounaise qui est constituée d’éléments du camerounais français, anglais camerounais et anglais pidgin camerounais. Cette langue mixte est utilisée le plus souvent parmi les jeunes camerounais et est la langue principale, précédée par le pidgin anglais (créole) camerounais en terme de popularité. Ses origines remontent au milieu des années 1970 lorsque le Cameroun francophone et le Cameroun anglophone se sont réunifiés après la première guerre mondiale quand l'Angleterre et la France ont toutes deux pris possession du Cameroun. Cependant, elle a commencé à devenir vraiment populaire dans les années 1990 dû à des musiciens qui chantaient dans cette langue. Camfranglais fait partie intégrante de la culture camerounaise, surtout chez la jeunesse urbaine. Cette langue vernaculaire est souvent vue sur Internet et donne à ceux qui l'utilisent un moyen de se forger une identité moderne et urbaine, séparée des connotations coloniales et tribales des langues plus anciennes. Le Camfranglais est formé en utilisant certaines parties de l'anglais combinées avec certaines parties du français. Par exemple, la phrase ‘I will see you tomorrow’ traduit à ´Je vais te see tomorrow’ en Camfranglais alors que normalement en français, ce serait ´Je vais te voir demain’.
Camfranglais Camfranglais, also known as Francanglais or Francamanglais, is a Cameroonian vernacular that is made up of elements of Cameroonian French, Cameroonian English and Cameroonian Pidgin English. The mixed language is used most commonly among young Cameroonians and the only language which it is preceded by Cameroonian pidgin English (Creole) in terms of popularity. Its origins date back to the mid-1970s when Frenchspeaking Cameroon and English-speaking Cameroon reunited after World War I when England and France both took possession of Cameroon. However, it started to become really popular in the 1990s due to musicians singing in this language. Camfranglais is an embraced part of Cameroonian culture, especially by urban youth. This vernacular is often seen on the internet and gives those who use it a way to forge a modern, urban identity, separate from the colonial and tribal connotations of older languages. Camfranglais is formed using parts of English combined with parts of French. For example, the sentence "I will see you tomorrow" translates to "Je vais te see you tomorrow" in Camfranglais while normally in French, it would be "Je vais te voir demain". By Eniola
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Los Dialectos Chilenos Mientras que Chile es el lugar de nacimiento de uno de los autores más destacados de la literatura española, Pablo Neruda, el español que creció usando con sus seres queridos probablemente no fuera utilizado ampliamente fuera de Chile. El dialecto chileno a menudo se considera uno de lo mas difíciles de entender y uno de los tipos de español, más diferentes del que tiene origen en la España central. Dado que Chile es increíblemente aislado por cadenas montañosas como los Andes, este aislamiento ha permitido al dialecto chileno crecer y evolucionar en lo que algunas personas consideran un idioma completamente diferente. Además, el dialecto ha sido fuertemente influenciado por las lenguas de los chilenos indígenas como los pueblos Mapuches, Aymara o Diaguita, lo que ha llevado a mas digresiones del español original de lo que se enseña en las escuelas. Por ejemplo, algunas palabras como pololo o polola – que significa novio/novia – fueron adoptadas directamente de la cultura mapuche, aunque en mapuche significa insecto o bicho. Algunas características clave del dialecto chileno son su singular voseo (la forma en que dicen ‘you’, que sustituye a la palabra tu) y la omisión de ciertas consonantes en sus palabras. Si bien el término "vos" en sí mismo es mucho menos común en Chile que en, por ejemplo, Argentina, todavía usan la conjugación alternativa de la forma tú. Como se ve en la tabla a continuación, en lugar de decir ‘Vos hablás’ como se encuentra en las formas voseo en Argentina o Uruguay, es probable que los chilenos digan Tú hablái. Sin embargo, ‘ustedes’ todavía se usa como la forma predominante de dirigirse a grupos de personas. La conjugación allí sigue siendo la misma que se hace en la mayor parte de América del Sur. Se considera que el dialecto chileno suena bastante musical. A menudo, los chilenos hablan increíblemente rápido cuando hablan de manera informal, por lo que sus palabras van juntas hasta el punto en que puede ser bastante difícil de entender para los no chilenos. Sus sonidos c y z se pronuncian como s en lugar de th, como es común en España, y las ‘d’ sonidos entre dos vocales a menudo se omiten.
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Chilean Dialects Whilst Chile is the birthplace of one of the most prominent poets in Spanish literature, Pablo Neruda, the Spanish he most likely grew up using to talk to his loved ones, is far from the widely used outside of Chile. The Chilean dialect is often considered to be one of the most difficult to understand and the most distinct types of Spanish, which originated in Central Spain. Chile was incredibly isolated by mountain ranges such as the Andes. This isolation has allowed the Chilean dialect to grow and evolve into what some people consider to be a completely different language. Furthermore, the dialect has been heavily influenced by the languages of indigenous Chileans such as the Mapuche, Aymara or Diaguita peoples, which has led to further digressions from the original Spanish that is taught in schools. For example, some words such as pololo or polola - meaning girlfriend/boyfriend - were adopted directly from the Mapuche culture, although in Mapuche, it means insect or bug. Some key characteristics of the Chilean dialect are their unique voseo ( the way they say you, which substitutes the word tú) tense and the omission of certain consonants of their words. While the term ‘vos’ itself is far less common in Chile than in, for example, Argentina, they still use the alternative conjugation of the tú form. As seen in the table below, rather than saying Vos hablás as is found in the voseo forms in Argentina or Uruguay, Chilenos are likely to say Tu hablái. However, ustedes is still used as the predominant way of addressing groups of people, and the conjugation there stays the same as is done in most South America. The Chilean dialect is considered to be quite musical sounding. Often, Chileans speak incredibly fast when speaking informally, so their words run together to the point where it can be pretty challenging to understand for nonChileans. Their c sounds and z sounds are pronounced like s’s rather than this, as is common in Spain, and the d’s between two vowels are often omitted. By Xenia
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L’histoire de Haïtien Créole Inspiré des dialectes latins et africains, la langue créole haïtienne a une histoire courte mais intrigante. Le créole haïtien est une langue vernaculaire qui s’est développée aux XVIIe et XVIIIe siècles. L’histoire de son origine est venue de son développement sur les plantations de canne à sucre d’Haïti à partir de contacts entre colons français et esclaves africains. C’est l’une des langues officielles d’Haïti depuis 1987. L’une des interrogations sur cette langue est son dialecte et la détermination des faits a partir des langues africaines et ses caractéristiques grammaticales. Comme le créole haïtien est un dérivé du créole français et c’est probablement celui qui a le plus d’influence des langues africaines. En plus d’être maltraites par des propriétaires d’esclaves cruels, les esclaves africains n’avaient au départ aucun moyen efficace de communiquer entre eux, car ils venaient de différentes paries de l’Afrique de l’Ouest et parlaient des langues différentes. Les savants ont conclu à deux facteurs, l’un est le rapport élevé des africains aux européens dans l’histoire tôt de la colonie. Le deuxième est la révolution haïtienne ou beaucoup des colons français sont morts. Le dialecte français que les esclaves essayaient d’apprendre était très diffèrent car il était généralement parlé par des gens français de classe supérieure, donc le créole haïtien est plus communément appelé argot. Étant donné qu’elle a été influencée par l’argot français et les langues africaines, la grammaire et la structure linguistique globale sont différentes du français standard. Pendant du 20ème siècle, la stigmatisation et les opinions publiques envers le créole haïtien ont changé avec plus de 90 pour cent de la population parlant la langue, d’ailleurs les gens ont commencé a voir la langue comme quelque chose d’inné a leur culture. La consternation politique et les pressions exercées dans les années 1970 ont poussé à changer la langue dans les écoles, faisant pression sur les législateurs pour normaliser l’orthographie. Ils ont ensuite crée une orthographe qui convient a l’école et en 1980 c’était officiel. C’était plus que de l’argot. La popularité du créole haïtien augmente et beaucoup de gens s’efforcent de l’apprendre.
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The history of the Haitian Creole Inspired from Latin and African dialects, the Haitian creole language has a short but intriguing history. Haitian Creole is a vernacular language that developed in the 17th and 18th century. The history of its origin came from its development on the sugarcane plantations of Haiti between French Colonists and African Slaves. It has been one of Haiti’s official languages since 1987. One of the queries about this language is its dialect and determining the features from African languages and its grammatical features. As Haitian creole is a derivative of French creole, and it is probably the one that has the most influence from African languages. In addition to being maltreated by cruel slave owners, the African slaves initially had no effective method of communicating with each other, since they came from different parts of West Africa and spoke different languages. scholars have concluded to two factors; one is the high ratio of Africans to Europeans in the early history of the colony. The second is the Haitian revolution where lots of French colonists died. The French dialect that the slaves were trying to learn from was very different as it was usually spoken by higher class French people, therefore Haitian creole is more commonly known as slang. since it was influenced by Argot or French slang and African-based languages, the grammar and overall language structure is different from standard French. During the 20th century, stigma and public opinions towards Haitian Creole changed with over 90 percent of the population speaking Haitian Creole, moreover people began seeing the language as something innate to their culture. Political dismay and pressure in the 1970s forced an incentive to change the language in schools, pressurising lawmakers to standardise orthography. They then created an orthography that is suitable for school and in 1980 this was official. It made it more than just slang. Popularity for Haitian Creole is rising, and many people are striving to learn it.
By Neesha
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Bhaarateey Boliyaan Bharat mein unnees hajaar paanch sau se jyaada boliyon mein baat hoti hai. Isme se bharatiya sarkar baees bhaashaon ko aadhikaarik taur par pahachaanata hai aur yeh hain: Bangali, Hindi, MaithilI, Nepaali, Sanskrt, Tamil, Urdu, Asamiya, Dogari, Kannad, Gujaraati, Bodo, Manipur, Udiya, Maraathi, Santaalee, Telugu, Panjaabi, Sindhee, Malayaalam, Konkani aur Kashmiri. Hindustan mein itni saari bhaashayen hai, humari mushoor itihaas ki vajay se. Aur iska matlab hai, ki hindustan mein har ek jaane ko kaafi bhaashayen samajhe aur bolni aati hain. Har raajy ki apani bhaasha hoti hai jo uske rahne vaalon ko jaani hoti hai. iske alaava, bharat ke uttar mein, Hindi jaana bahut upayogi hota hai taaki log durse raajy mein rehne vaalon se baat kar sakte hai. Itni bhaashayon ki vajay se, Hindustan mein bhaut saare film udyog hai, in mein se sabse mushoor hai, Bollywood, jo Hindi mein filme bannata hai.
Indian Dialects In India there are more than nineteen thousand, five hundred dialects in which people converse. Within these, the Indian government officially recognises 20 languages as national languages and these are: Bengali, Hindi, MaithilI, Nepali, Sanskrit, Tamil, Urdu, Asamiya, Dogri, Kannada, Gujarati, Bodo, Manipuri, Udiyan, Maraathi, Santaalee, Telugu, Punjabi, Sindhu, Malayalam, Konkani and Kashmiri. There are so many languages in India due to our renowned history. This means that in India, every single person tends to know and understand quite a few languages. Every state has its own language, which the residents have to know. Apart from this, in the North of India, it has become very useful to know Hindi so that you are more able to converse with people from other states. Due to having so many languages, there are many different film industries in India to cater for the different languages, with the most famous of them being, Bollywood, which is in Hindi. By Kashmea
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Las lenguas indígenas en Latinoamérica Para cualquier comunidad, la lengua permite comunicarse con su entorno y explicar concepciones del mundo propias de su cultura Uno de los objetivos tras la Declaración sobre los Derechos de los Pueblos Indígenas por las de Naciones Unidas en 2007 fue la necesidad de conocer y respetar la cultura de estas comunidades. Uno de sus proyectos es el Atlas sociolingüístico de pueblos indígenas en América Latina. Este documento reveló que Latinoamérica es la región con la mayor riqueza del mundo en familias lingüísticas. Cuenta con 99 frente a otras regiones como África, Asia del Sur y Nueva Guinea que presentan entre 10 y 27. La familia lingüística latinoamericana más extendida es la Arawak con 40 lenguas que se extienden desde Centroamérica hasta la Amazonía. Respecto a los idiomas más extendidos destaca el quechua que se habla en Argentina, Bolivia, Brasil, Colombia, Chile, Ecuador y Perú. Otra de las más conocidas es el náhuatl, la lengua de los aztecas y una de las más estudiadas. De esta proceden numerosas palabras en español: «tomate» (tomatl), «aguacate» (ahuacatl), «chicle» (tzictli) o «petaca» (petlacalli). Sin embargo, el único caso de bilingüismo estatal está en Paraguay. En este país son oficiales el español y el guaraní desde la aprobación de la Constitución de 1992. Estos datos también nos indican que casi una quinta parte de los pueblos latinoamericanos ha dejado de hablar su lengua indígena. Los estudios explican este suceso por una reducción de las sociedades indígenas y la obligación de adaptarse a las instituciones gubernamentales y al desarrollo económico. Esta situación se repite en varias regiones del mundo y llevó a la ONU a proclamar en 2019 como el Año Internacional de las Lenguas Indígenas. Con el objetivo de concienciar sobre la necesidad de su conservación.
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Indigenous languages in Latin America For any community, the language allows communication with its environment and serves to express its own understanding of the world. One of the objectives of the Declaration over the Right of Indigenous People, approved by the United Nations in 2007, was the need to know and respect the culture of these communities. One of these projects is the Sociolinguistic Atlas of the indigenous people in Latin America. This document revealed that Latin America is the region of the world with the greatest number of linguistic families in the world. It includes 99 (families) versus other regions such as Africa, Southern Asia and Nueva Guinea which present between 10 and 27. The most extended Latino-American family is the Arawak with 40 languages spread out from Central America to the Amazonia. Regarding the most extended languages, Quechua stands out, being spoken in Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Chile, Ecuador and Peru. Also, one of the most known and studied is Nahuatl, the aztecs’ language. A large number of words in Spanish come from this language: "tomate" from "tomatl" (tomato), "aguacate" from "ahuacatl" (avocado), "chicle" from "tzictli" (chewing gum) o "petaca" from "petlacalli" (smoking pipe). However, the only case of bilingualism is Paraguay, where Spanish and Guarani are both official since the passing of the Constitution of 1992. The data reveal that nearly a fifth of the Latin American people have stopped speaking their own indigenous language. The studies explain this fact on account of a reduction in the number of indigenous communities as well as a need to adapt to government institutions and to economic development using its language less. This problem takes place in different regions of the world so the United Nations decided to designate 2019 as the International Year of the Indigenous Languages in order to raise the awareness of the need for preservation.
By Mrs Hernandez-Moral
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Wir können alles – außer Hochdeutsch! Das ist der Slogan der Stadt Stuttgart, welche in Süddeutschland liegt und die Hauptsatdt von Baden-Württemberg ist – der Schwabenhochburg Deutschlands. In Deutschland gibt es zahlreiche Dialekte, manche stärker, andere weniger stark ausgeprägt. Das Schwäbische gehört zu den ersteren, und ist dazu noch ziemlich unbeliebt, glaubt man den alljährlichen Umfragen in der Bevölkerung. Besonders für Norddeutsche ist dieser süddeutsche Dialekt nur schwer zu ertragen, vielleicht aber auch nur, weil sie ihn nicht verstehen können! Das Schwäbische stammt genauso wie das Schweizerdeutsche vom alemannischen Sprachstamm ab, weshalb diese beiden Sprachvarianten auch einige Gemeinsamkeiten haben. Auβer einer eigenen Grammatik (seltener Gebrauch des Imperfekts, kein Genitiv!! Traumhaft für Deutschlernende!), gibt es vor allem in der Betonung viele Unterschiede zum Standarddeutschen. Eine Besonderheit des Schwäbischen sind zum Beispiel die nasalen Laute, vergleichbar mit Portugiesisch und Französisch. Auch kommen Umlaute wie ö und ä kaum vor: König wird Keenich, schön zu schee. Anstelle der ö-Laute tritt also ein e und das ü wird zu i. Ein Stück Fleisch heißt dann zum Beispiel a Schdick Floisch. Durch die vielen Diphthonge wirkt die Sprache oft breit. Die Mutter ist müde heißt etwa dia Muader isch miad. Weiterhin werden in der schwäbischen Mundart die harten Konsonanten meist weich ausgesprochen: p,t und k werden zu b, d und g. Zum Beispiel heisst dann ein Vater ein Vader und ein Socke a Sogg. Gleichzeitig werden st zu sch(d) und sp zu schb, also ‘ist’ heiβt zum Beispiel isch. Ausserdem fallen die vielen Verniedlichungen auf. Das Mädchen ist das Mädle, die Tür das Türle (oder eher: Dirle). Zuletzt gibt es im Schwäbischen viele Wörter, die sich stark vom Standarddeutschen unterscheiden. Wer würde zum Beispiel denken, dass a Mugg eine Fliege ist, a Gugg eine Plastiktüte und dass man im Schwabenländle nicht arbeitet, sondern schafft? Andere Wörter, mit denen Reigschmeckte (Fremde) zu kämpfen haben, sind Breschdleng (Erdbeere), eischmoddza (einschmieren), Ade (Auf Wiedersehen) und fatza (reissen). Fragt doch mal eure Deutschlehrer, ob sie die folgenden Wörter kennen (auβer natürlich ich, eine geborene Schwäbin, bin eure Lehrerin): Krumbiere / Veschbr / schwätza In diesem Sinne – Tschüssle und Ade!
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We can do everything – except speak proper German! This is the slogan of the city Stuttgart, which lies in the South of Germany and is the capital of the federal state Baden-Württemberg – the Swabian heartland of the country. There are numerous dialects in Germany, some stronger, others less so. The Swabian dialect belongs to the former, and in addition is quite unpopular, if you believe the annual survey of the German population. Especially for Northern Germans, this South-German dialect is hard to bear, but perhaps only because they can’t understand a word of it! Swabian, just like Swiss-German, has its roots in the Alemannic language, which is why these two speech variants have a lot in common. Apart from its own Grammar (rare use of the imperfect tense, no genitive case!! A dream for German learners!), there are mainly differences in pronunciation between Swabian and Standard German. One feature of this Southern dialect are the nasal sounds, comparable with Portuguese and French. “Umlaute”, like ö and ä, hardly exist: König becomes Keenich, schön becomes schee. The ö-Umaut’ is replaced with an e and ü with an i. Ein Stück Fleisch then becomes a Schdick Floisch. The many diphthongs make the language sound very broad, e.g. die Mutter ist müde would be dia Muader isch miad. In addition, in the Swabian dialect, hard consonants are pronounced softly: p, t and k become b, d and g. Ein Vater becomes ein Vader and ein Socke a Sogg. At the same time, st becomes sch(d) and sp is pronounced schb, so the word “ist” (is) would be isch. Another feature which stands out are the many minimizations. Das Mädchen becomes Mädle, die Tür das Türle (or rather: Dirle). Lastly, there are numerous Swabian words which are very different from their Standard German counter parts. Who would have guessed, that a Mugg means eine Fliege (a fly), a Gugg eine Plastiktüte (plastic bag) and that in the Schwabenländle people don’t use the word arbeiten (to work) but schaffen? Other words, which Reigschmeckte (foreigners) would struggle with, are Breschdleng (Erdbeere strawberry), eischmoddza (einschmieren – to grease something), Ade (Auf Wiedersehen – Good bye) und fatza (reiβen – to break). Why don’t you ask your German teacher, whether they know the following words (unless of course I am your teacher, a born and bred Swabian) : Krumbiere / Veschbr / schwätza. In this spirit – Tschüssle and Ade! By Miss Koehnlein
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Maithili मैथिली भारत में 3 करोड़ (उत्तरपूर्वी भारत में थिहार और झारखंड) और नेपाल (तराई क्षेत्र) में 40 लाख िोलने र्वालों द्वारा िोली जाने र्वा ली एक अल्पसंख्यक भाषा है । मैथिली भोजपुरी और मगधी से संिंथधत है । यह 1000 साल से भी ज्यादा पुराना है। मैथिली भारत में एक संर्वैधाथनक मान्यता प्राप्त क्षेत्रीय भाषा है , और नेपाल में एक मान्यता प्रा प्त भाषा है। इसका उपयोग थिक्षा, सरकार और साथहत्य में थकया जाता है । मध्य / मधुिनी िोली, या सोतीपुरा, मैथिली का मानक रूप माना जाता है । यह मुख्य रूप से थिहार के द रभंगा और मधुिनी थजलों में िोली जाती है । अन्य िोथलयों में िाथमल हैं : िज्जिका, थजसे भारत और नेपाल में लगभग 1.2 करोड़ लोग िोलते हैं , इसे िोलने र्वालों द्वारा एक अ लग भाषा माना जाता है; हालााँथक इसे आथधकाररक तौर पर एक भाषा के रूप में मान्यता नहीं दी ग ई है। मैथिली पहले थतरहुत थलथप के साि थलखा गया िा, जो कभीकभी आज भी इस्तेमाल की जाती है। इसे कैिी थलथप से भी थलखा गया है । 20व ीं सदी में दे र्वनागरी मैथिली के थलए सिसे अथधक इस्तेमाल की जाने र्वाली थलथप िन गई। इस भाषा का नाम थमथिला नाम से आया है थजसे सीता के थपता राजा जनक (7व ीं िताब्दी ईसा पूर्वव) का प्राचीन साम्राज्य कहा जाता है। हालांथक ऐसा कहा जाता है थक प्राचीन काल में थमथिला में थर्वद्वा नों द्वारा अपने साथहज्जत्यक कायों के थलए संस्कृत का प्रयोग थकया जाता िा और मैथिली आम लोगों की भाषा िी। मैथिली में सिसे प्रथसद्ध साथहत्यकार कथर्व थर्वद्यापथत िे, थजन्ोंने अपनी कथर्वताओं से द रभंगा के राजा को प्रभाथर्वत करके मैथिली को लोगों की भाषा की ज्जथिथत से 14 र्वीं िताब्दी के थिहार में आथधकाररक काम के थलए इस्तेमाल थकया।
Maithili Maithili is a minority language spoken by 30 million speakers in India (Bihar and Jharkhand states in north-eastern India), and another 4 million in Nepal (Terai region). Maithili belongs to the Eastern Bihari branch of the Indo-Aryan language family and is closely related to Bhojpuri and Magadhi. It is more than 1000 years old. Maithili is a constitutional recognized regional language in India, and a recognized Nepalese language in Nepal. It is used in education, government and literature. The Central / Madhubani dialect, or Sotipura, is considered the standard form of Maithili. It is spoken mainly in the Darbhanga and Madhubani districts of Bihar. Other dialects include: • • •
Thēthi, Dehati and Kisan, 14
which are spoken in India and Nepal Kortha, • Jolaha and • Thetiya, which are spoken only in India •
Bantar, • Barmeli, • Musar and • Tati, which are spoken only in Nepal. •
Bajjika, which is spoken by about 12 million people in India and Nepal, is considered a separate language by those who speak it; however, it isn’t officially recognised as a language. Maithili was formerly written with the Tirhuta script, which is sometimes still used. It has also been written with the Kaithi script. In the 20th century, Devanāgarī became the most used script for Maithili. The name of the language comes from the name Mithila which is said to be the ancient kingdom of Sita’s father King Janaka (7th Century BC). Though it is said that in ancient times in Mithila, Sanskrit was used by the scholars for their literary work and Maithili was the language of the commoners. The most famous literary figure in Maithili was poet Vidyapati, who elevated Maithili from the status of people’s language to one used for official work in 14th century Bihar, by impressing the King of Darbhanga with his poems.
By Vanessa 15
Palenquero Hablado por residentes de un poblado establecido por cimarrones que habían escapado de Cartegena, Palenquero es visto como una forma de resistencia cultural. Palenquero es un criollo de base española hablado en el pueblo colombiano de Palenque de San Basilio, situado en la provincia de Bolívar. El palenque era originalmente una de las numerosas fortalezas fundadas por cimarrones en el pueblo a lo largo de los siglos XVI y XVII. Desde alrededor de XVI, conflictos armados esporádicos parece haber ocurrido entre cimarrones y españoles, pero la comunidad de San Basilio llegó a una tregua con el gobierno colonial en 1691 y desde entonces, ha sido libre. No obstante, Palenque de San Basilio se quedó aislado de la sociedad colombiana dominante hasta 1980, y por eso su lengua creole ha sido preservado. El idioma de Palenque fue descubierto hace poco, después de la primera descripción sistemática en el artículo de Bikerton y Escalante en 1971. Visto que muchos cimarrones no habían sido en contacto con la gente de ascendencia europea, los palenqueros hablaron lenguas criollas que incluye el español y kikongo, un idioma hablado en el centro de África. Palenquero no tiene un sistema de ortografía oficial y, de manera similar a otros criollos, casi siempre los sustantivos, adjetivos, verbos y determinantes no cambian. Además, el género gramático no existe y a causa de eso, los adjetivos descienden de la forma masculina española. Por ejemplo: Así son unas palabras en español vs palenquero: lengua africano = ‘African language’ Esta crema está suciaà --> Ese nata é susio. = ‘This cream is dirty.’ Adicionalmente, la pluralidad en el sintagma nominal se expresa a través de la partícula ‘ma’ (posiblemente de origen bantú): un ría → un ma ría ‘a day’ ‘some days’
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Palenquero Spoken by residents of a town established by maroons who had escaped from Cartegena, Palenquero is seen as a form of cultural resistance. Palenquero is a Spanishbased Creole spoken in the Colombian town of Palenque de San Basilio, located in the province of Bolívar. The palenque was originally one of the many fortresses founded by maroons in the town throughout the 16th and 17th centuries. Since around the 16th century, sporadic armed conflicts appear to have occurred between maroons and Spaniards, but the community of San Basilio reached a truce with the colonial government in 1691 and has been free ever since. However, Palenque de San Basilio remained isolated from mainstream Colombian society until 1980, and for this reason its Creole language has been preserved. The Palenque language was discovered recently, after the first systematic description in the Bikerton and Escalante article in 1971. Since many maroons had not been in contact with people of European descent, the Palenqueros spoke Creole languages that include Spanish and Kikongo, a language spoken in central Africa. Palenquero does not have an official spelling system and, similar to other Creoles, almost always the nouns, adjectives, verbs and determiners do not change. In addition, the grammar gender does not exist and because of that, the adjectives descend from the Spanish masculine form. For instance: lengua africano = ‘African language’ Esta crema está sucia Ese nata é susio =‘This cream is dirty.’ Adicionalmente, la pluralidad en el sintagma nominal se expresa a través de la partícula ‘ma’ (posiblemente de origen bantú): un ría → un ma ría = ‘a day’ ‘some days’ By Sakina
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Crioulos de base portuguesa Os crioulos são línguas naturais, de formação rápida, criadas pela necessidade de expressão e comunicação plena entre indivíduos inseridos em comunidades multilingues relativamente estáveis. Chamam-se de base portuguesa os crioulos cujo léxico é, na sua maioria, de origem portuguesa. No entanto, do ponto de vista gramatical, os crioulos são línguas diferenciadas e autónomas. Os crioulos de base portuguesa são habitualmente classificados de acordo com um critério de ordem predominantemente geográfica embora, em muitos casos, exista também uma correlação entre a localização geográfica e o tipo de línguas de substrato em presença no momento da formação. Em África formaram-se os Crioulos da Alta Guiné (em Cabo Verde, Guiné-Bissau e Casamansa) e os do Golfo da Guiné (em S. Tomé, Príncipe e Ano Bom). Classificam-se como Indo-portugueses os crioulos da Índia (de Diu, Damão, Bombaim, Korlai, Quilom, Cananor, Tellicherry, Cochim e Vaipim e da Costa de Coromandel e de Bengala) e os crioulos do Sri-Lanka, antigo Ceilão (Trincomalee e Batticaloa, Mannar e zona de Puttallam). Na Ásia surgiram ainda crioulos de base portuguesa na Malásia (Malaca, Kuala Lumpur e Singapura) e em algumas ilhas da Indonésia (Java, Flores, Ternate, Ambom, Macassar e Timor) conhecidos sob a designação de Malaio-portugueses. Os crioulos Sino-portugueses são os de Macau e Hong-Kong. Na América encontramos ainda um crioulo que se poderá considerar de base ibérica, já que o português partilha com o castelhano a origem de uma grande parte do léxico (o Papiamento de Curaçau, Aruba e Bonaire, nas Antilhas) e um outro crioulo no Suriname, o Saramacano, que, sendo de base inglesa, manifesta no seu léxico uma forte influência portuguesa.
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Portuguese Base Creoles Creoles are natural languages as we learnt in the MFL Symposium. They are formed rapidly, and their creation stems from the urgent need of full expression and communication in between individuals who belong to multilinguistic communities which are relatively stable. We call “Portuguese based creoles” all the creoles whose lexicon is, in its vast majority, of Portuguese origin. However, from a grammatical point of view, creoles are autonomous and differentiated languages. The creoles of Portuguese base are generally classified according to a predominantly geographical point of view even though there is, in many cases, also a correlation in between the geographical location and the type of languages of substrate present at the time of formation. For example, in Africa one can find the following creoles: Creoles of High Guinea (in Cape Verde, Guinea-Bissau and Casamansa), Creoles of the Guinea Gulf (in S. Tomé and Prince). There are Indian-portuguese creoles in India, such as Diu, Daman, Mumbai, Korlai, Quilom, Cananor, Tellicherry, amongst others. In Asia, there are Portuguese based creoles in Malaysia (Singapore, Kuala Lumpur and Malacca) and in some islands of Indonesia (Java, Flores, Ternate, Ambom, Macassar and Timor). These latter ones are known as Malayan-Portuguese. The creoles from Macau and Hong-Kong are denominated as Sino-Portuguese. In America there is a creole that can be considered of Iberian base given that Portuguese shares the origin of great part of its lexicon with Spanish and that is the Creole from Papiamento (Curaçao, Aruba and Bonaire in the Antilles). Finally, there is another creole called Saramacane which exists in Suriname, and although of English base, it shows in its lexicon a strong Portuguese influence.
Source: Instituto Camões By Miss Santos 19
Dialetto Napoletano Quando l'Italia e stata unificata nel 1861 solo il 2.5% del paese parlava italiano e sono passati quasi 100 anni prima che l’italiano diventasse la lingua predominante da parlare nelle strade e nelle case in Italia. Tuttavia, dopo l’invenzione della televisione, ha rapidamente superato altri dialetti, per esempio il dialetto napoletano. Il romanzo italiano “L’amica geniale" di Elena Ferrante segue le vite di Elena Greco e Lila Cerullo, che navigano la complessità di crescere nella Napoli degli anni 1950. Ferrante dice costantemente al lettore quando un personaggio sta parlando napoletano o italiano scrivendo "lui/lei ha detto in dialetto" per differenziare i due. Ferrante ritrae come la lingua italiana e il dialetto napoletano erano visti negli anni 1950 quando il personaggio di Elena improvvisamente usa un "italiano corretto" quando parla con Lila, il che le dà un certo senso di superiorità, rafforzando il rapporto tra lei e Lila, mentre escludendo Carmela (che parla solo dialetto). Questo dimostra quanto siano diversi l'italiano e il napoletano, e mostra anche il fatto che negli anni 1950 il napoletano era visto come "semplice" e "non sofisticato" in confronto all'italiano. In aggiunta a questo, la scomparsa del dialetto nella classe media ha un po' a che fare con la distinzione di classe: la classe media voleva separarsi dalla classe operaia, e l'italiano era la lingua per andare avanti in Italia e parlare il dialetto come faceva la classe operaia era guardato con disprezzo. In questo periodo nel Sud Italia, le famiglie e i commercianti preferivano parlare il napoletano. Il napoletano risale al 'latino volgare', come tutte le lingue romanze (francese, spagnolo e portoghese per esempio), ed è quasi impossibile da imparare; sembra che la fluidità dell'italiano sia quasi un ostacolo all'acquisizione del napoletano - anche gli italiani del nord trovano il napoletano difficile, eppure molti ne sono affascinati. La parola 'world' in inglese è 'mondo' in italiano, e 'munno' in napoletano, e la parola 'when' in inglese è 'quando' in italiano ma 'quanno' in napoletano. Possiamo vedere che ci sono molte differenze tra l'ortografia e la pronuncia italiana e napolitana, ma è la gestualità, la bellezza e la brillantezza del napoletano lo rendono difficile da ignorare, e se mai vi trovate a camminare per le strade di Napoli, avrete la possibilità di sentire questo bellissimo dialetto.
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Neapolitan dialect When Italy was unified in 1861, only 2.5% of the country spoke Italian, and it was almost 100 years before Italian became the predominant language to be spoken on the streets and in homes in Italy. However, after the invention of television, it quickly overtook other dialects, for example the Neapolitan dialect. Elena Ferrante's Italian novel 'L'amica geniale' follows the lives of Elena Greco and Lila Cerullo as they navigate the complexities of growing up in 1950s Naples. Ferrante constantly tells the reader when a character is speaking Neapolitan or Italian by writing "he/she said in dialect" to differentiate between the two. Ferrante portrays how the Italian language and the Neapolitan dialect were seen in the 1950s when Elena's character suddenly uses 'proper Italian' when talking to Lila, which gives her a certain sense of superiority, strengthening the relationship between her and Lila, while excluding Carmela (who only speaks dialect). This shows how different Italian and Neapolitan are, and also illustrates the fact that in the 1950s Neapolitan was seen as 'simple' and 'unsophisticated' compared to Italian. In addition to this, the disappearance of dialect in the middle class has something to do with the class distinction: the middle class wanted to separate itself from the working class, and Italian was the language to get ahead in Italy and speaking dialect as the working class did was looked down upon. At this time in Southern Italy, families and merchants preferred to speak Neapolitan. Neapolitan goes back to 'Vulgar Latin', like all Romance languages (French, Spanish and Portuguese for example), and is almost impossible to learn; it seems that the fluency of Italian is almost an obstacle to acquiring Neapolitan even northern Italians find Neapolitan difficult, yet many are fascinated by it. The word 'world' in English is 'mondo' in Italian, and 'munno' in Neapolitan, and the word 'when' in English is 'when' in Italian but 'quanno' in Neapolitan. We can see that there are many differences between the spelling and pronunciation of Italian and Neapolitan, but it is the gestures, beauty and brilliance of Neapolitan that make it hard to ignore, and if you ever find yourself walking the streets of Naples, you will have a chance to hear this beautiful dialect.
By Jemima
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Il Siciliano Il siciliano è un dialetto polare dell'italiano, e contrariamente alla credenza popolare, il siciliano ha preceduto la lingua italiana come la conosciamo noi. La maggior parte degli studi linguistici fa risalire il siciliano all'isola 700 anni dopo Cristo. Il siciliano è un vero dialetto medditerraneo in cui si trovano influenze arabe e arabeggianti. Si stima che 5 milioni di abitanti della Sicilia parlino il vero dialetto siciliano oltre ad altri 2 milioni di persone nel mondo. Il siciliano ha guadagnato popolarità ed è diventato ben noto tra i circoli letterari in libertà durante i primi anni del 1200. Questa poesia vernacolare siciliana fu pesantemente influenzata dall'alto latino e fu altamente riconosciuta da Dante. Dante sosteneva che era la prima produzione pionieristica della poesia volgare italiana. Il siciliano si sviluppò perché molti invasori comprarono parole proprie in Sicilia. Si ipotizza che il siciliano possa essere stata la prima lingua romanza; tuttavia, alcuni potrebbero dire che è stata modellata da molti anni di influenza straniera, occupazione e conquista. Graficamente, l'italiano e il siciliano hanno molte differenze, per esempio, i pronomi personali io, lui, lei, esso, tu e loro. Il siciliano usa anche le stesse desinenze per i sostantivi maschili e femminili, mentre l'accordo è cruciale in italiano. L'italiano ha avuto una grande influenza sul siciliano dal 1860, quando la Sicilia divenne ufficialmente parte dell'Italia. Attualmente, ci troviamo di fronte al problema che il dialetto siciliano può estinguersi a causa del grande afflusso di italiani in Sicilia.
Sicilian Sicilian is a popular dialect of Italian, and contrary to popular belief, Sicilian preceded the Italian language as we know it. Most linguistic scholarship traces Sicilian back to the island 700 years A.D. Sicilian is a true Mediterranean dialect in which Arabic and Arab influences are found. It is estimated that 5 million inhabitants of Sicily speak the true Sicilian dialect in addition to another 2 million people around the world. Sicilian gained popularity and became well known amongst literary circles in poetry during the early 1200s. This Sicilian vernacular poetry was heavily influenced by high Latin and was highly recognized by Dante. Dante claimed that it was the first pioneer production of Italian vulgar poetry. Sicilian was developed because many invaders bought words of their own to Sicily. It is speculated that Sicilian may have been the first romance language, however some may say that it has been shaped by many years of foreign influence, occupation, and conquest. Grammatically, Italian and Sicilian have many differences, for example, the personal pronouns I, he, she, it, you, and them. Sicilian also uses the same endings for masculine and feminine nouns, whereas agreement is crucial in Italian. Italian had a great influence on Sicilian since 1860, when Sicily officially became a part of Italy. Currently, we are facing the problem that the Sicilian dialect may die out due to the large influx of Italian into Sicily.
By Jasmine 22
L’héritage linguistique en France On différencie en linguistique les langues véhiculaires des langues vernaculaires. La première renvoie à la langue parlée en majorité et par le plus grand nombre dans un pays donné. La seconde est propre aux langues régionales et minoritaires ou parlées par certaines communautés uniquement, et elles sont nombreuses en France. Ces langues minoritaires sont souvent nommées patois, un terme plutôt dépréciatif qui en appelle à une imagerie campagnarde, une langue parlée dans les temps anciens par les paysans et à échelle locale. Parmi elles, on compte entre autres le breton, l’occitan, le catalan, et le basque. Certaines ont été oubliées, d’autres sont encore enseignées. La vérité est que ces langues sont plus nombreuses et importantes qu’on ne le croit. Elles imprègnent l’hexagone et font partie du patrimoine, héritage officiellement reconnu dans notre constitution depuis 2008. Elles trouvent encore écho aujourd’hui dans diverses expressions locales, inspirent les plus grands débats sociétaux (chocolatine ou pain au chocolat ?), forgent nos identités régionales, et font la fierté de ceux qui les parlent encore. Pour un Britannique, on pourrait comparer ça à l’accent de l’Essex. Pour certains, c’est le symbole d’origine populaire, d’un héritage régional, ou même un son ennuyeux et pour d’autres, c’est particulièrement charismatique. Malgré une glottophobie persistante en France, il est courant d’entendre diverses expressions régionales dérivées de patois dans la bouche des Français. Ainsi, ne parlant pourtant pas occitan, j’aime à utiliser l’expression occitane « a bisto de nas » signifiant « à vue de nez ». Ayant grandi dans le Poitou-Charentes, puis vécu presque dix ans à Toulouse, dans le sud, j’ai apporté avec moi mon vocabulaire poitevin et je l’ai ensuite élargi avec des expressions toulousaines et occitanes, ainsi qu’avec quelques mots typiquement aveyronnais et tarnais. J’ai découvert que notre langage est comme un code secret qui nous permettrait d’accéder et d’appartenir à diverses communautés. Il est selon moi important de se souvenir de sauvegarder cet héritage. Le respect que l’on montre envers une langue, qu’elle soit de l’ordre du dialecte ou utilisée à des fins diplomatiques, en dit long sur le respect que l‘on voue aux individus et aux autres cultures.
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Language heritage in France
In linguistics, we distinguish between vehicular and vernacular languages. The former refers to the language spoken in the majority and by the greatest number in a given country. The latter is specific to regional and minority languages or only spoken by communities, and we have plenty in France. These minority languages are often referred to as Patois, a rather depreciatory term that conjures up a rural imagery, a language spoken in ancient times by peasants and on a local scale. They include among others Breton, Occitan, Catalan and Basque. Some have been forgotten, some are still taught. The truth is that these languages are more numerous and important than we think. They permeate France and are part of its cultural heritage – which is officially recognised in our constitution since 2008. They still find their way into various local expressions, inspire the greatest social debates (“chocolatine” or “pain au chocolat”?), mould our regional identities, and are the pride of those who still use them. For a Briton, it could be compared to the Essex accent. For some it's a symbol of humble origins, regional heritage, or some even see it as an annoying sound. And for others it is particularly charismatic. Despite persistent glottophobia (linguistic discrimination, particularly towards accents) in France, it is common to hear various regional expressions derived from Patois in French’s mouths. For example, I do not speak Occitan, yet I like to use the Occitan expression "a bisto de nas" meaning "at sight of nose" (a French expression to give a rough estimation of something). Having grown up in Poitou-Charentes, and then lived for almost ten years in Toulouse, in the south, I brought my Poitevin vocabulary with me and then expanded it with expressions from Toulouse and Occitan language, as well as with a few typical words from Aveyron and Tarn. I discovered that the language we use can be like a secret code that allows us to access and belong to various communities. I think it is important to remember to preserve this heritage. The respect we show for a language, whether it is a dialect or used for diplomatic purposes, speaks volumes about the respect we have for individuals and other cultures. By Ms Marché
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